EQUIPOS/ESTACIONES/BOTIQUINES DE PRIMEROS AUXILIOS a.

I now look at the characteristics of an institution to establish the link between organisations and institutes. This link will then be related to schools to ascertain whether schools can be called organisations or institutions. Institutions also have distinct qualities. I shall now draw on the literature to look at the characteristics of an institution with specific reference to similarities or contrast to those of an organisation. Ostrom (2005: 3) associates institutions with “the prescriptions that humans use to organise all forms of repetitive and structured interactions including those within families, neighbourhoods, markets, firms, sports leagues, churches, private associations and governments at all scales.”

Institutions seem to place more emphasis on human interaction. Institutions, like organisations, also involve social purpose and performances which go beyond individual human lives and intentions.

They also involve the making and enforcing of rules governing cooperative human behaviour. The opportunities or constrains, the benefits or exclusions people are exposed to are all affected by “the rules or absence of rules” that shape the institution (Ostrom 2005:3). Institutions are associated with the customs, habits and culture that form part of a society and organisations and public service. A direct link is thus established between institutions and organisations.

Furthermore, formal organisations are commonly referred to as institutions. Anderson (2005:37) concurs by stating that “learning organisations would seem to be logically applied to institutions of higher education, given that they themselves are entities designed to retain, produce, and disseminate knowledge.” Even though specific reference is made to higher education, his assumption, I believe, may also apply to schools, since schools also retain, produce and disseminate knowledge. Coppieters (2005:129) also coined the two terms by stating that if schools achieve their goals, they “have to change from institutions that transfer knowledge into learning organisations.”

An institution as portrayed in the literature lays a great deal of emphasis on the human interaction within the framework of rules and regulation which relate more to socialisation within a group. As already pointed out, there appears to be a conceptual link between institutions and organisation. This correlation is found in the relationships, rules and regulations that are found in both institutions and organisations.

Through careful examination of the above mentioned link between organisations and institutions, it appears that there are many key elements that connect institutions with organisations. It is also clear that organisations focus mainly on managerial aspects, while institutions focus on human behavioural aspects. It is thus my understanding that both aspects are crucial elements in the existence of companies and schools.

On the basis of the literature, I argue that there is a conceptual link that ties institutes with organisations. This conceptual link is also linked with schools, which enables us to use the two concepts: organisation and institution interchangeably in relation to schools. On the one hand, Busher (2006:5) says that “there are many different ways of viewing schools as institutions” and yet, on the other hand, states that “There are several different approaches to make sense of schools as organisations” (2006:7). Thus, it is my contention that the concepts, institutions and organisations can be used interchangeably. I further posit that most of the elements highlighted in the explanation of institutions and organisations are dominant in a school‟s existence. The most direct reference to schools as learning organisation is by Davidoff et al. (1995:174) statement that “Schools are learning organisations.” I am therefore satisfied with the classification of schools as organisations and shall henceforth refer to a school as an organisation.

2.3 SCHOOLS AS LEARNING ORGANISATIONS (LITERATURE

REVIEW)

The literature review will provide me with possible lenses to construct a conceptual framework of a learning organisation. This conceptual framework will provide more clarity with regards to the strength and weaknesses of some educational policies as to understand if the service delivery model is sufficient to assist schools into learning organisation. The concept of a learning organisation was first advanced in the 1920s, but emerged as a topic only in the late 1980s. The idea, however, only gained prominence in the mid- to late 1990s. Many publications followed, including Peter Senge‟s (a key proponent of a learning organisation) The Fifth Discipline (1990).

I have to state that defining or describing a learning organisation is a complicated matter because of it dynamic nature and its context specificness. Kelleher and the Gender at Work Collaborative (2003:78) also concurs that “a learning organisation is not a „thing‟ that can be describe in any complete way that would allow us to say, this is a learning organisations.” According to Senge (1990:3), learning organisations are “organisations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are natured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to see the

whole together.” This formulation draws on two levels of development namely the individual and team level. It also points to the attributes of organisations and individuals and the way they ought to work together within the organisation. It has to be understood that the essence of a learning organisation is change where individuals and teams are committed to a shared vision.

To create a collaborative environment in schools, effective learning must first take place. Furthermore, for effective learning to take place, teachers need to be more in control of classroom teaching and learning, because often teachers spend much of their teaching time trying to establish order or to discipline learners. Establishing such control would enable teachers to better expand their capacity and bring about the desired results. This would further stimulate training and development.

The concept of a learning organisation was mainly associated with business but now it is firmly entrenched in education. Dalin (1978:39) states that “Schools as organisations, and the education system at large, have often been structured and managed according to organisational models taken from other sectors in society.” Furthermore, Hughes (2000:4) draws on Barhams, Fraser & Heath (1988:12) who refers to a learning organisation as “One where training and personal development are an integral part of the organisation and where learning is a continuous process, rather than being a bolted-on activity at various points in an individual‟s career.”

Moloi (2005:9) asserts that “a learning organisation is one that learns constantly and transforms itself, it is able to deal proactively with change.” This proactive engagement occurs in an environment of experimentation and innovation where all members participate in the developmental process and measure their achievements and efforts against those of other members and/or departments in the organisation. All this happens within the framework of the organisations vision, mission and goals. This sets the stage for perpetual learning and reflection of processes and practices.

A learning organisation operates within the confines of experimentation and innovation, but with the understanding that “innovation depended on both freedom and control.” (Kelleher and the Gender at Work Collaborative 2003:78). It is therefore necessary to actively engage in training and development programmes within an

environment that is conducive to teaching and learning. When teachers are in reasonable control of classroom teaching, they can more easily expand their capacity to bring about good results.

For sustainable development of a learning organisation it has to be well-connected to a larger body who shares the same interest. Moloi (2005:71) refers to this idea as “systems thing”. Kelleher and the Gender at Work Collaborative (2003: 77) points out that “permeability to influence and to ideas from outside becomes an important part of the equation.” This enables us to think outside the box. Kelleher‟s idea support Moloi‟s (2005:21) notion that “Interdependency, interconnectedness and interrelatedness are the fabric of the discipline of systems thinking.” An interactive relationship like is very dynamic and therefore requires skills and active engagement to shift the good from the bad influences.

Interaction with outside variables allows for more flexibility within the organisation and removes fixed hierarchical structures within the organisation. It also creates opportunities to “develop ways of experimenting with possible responses to the change and uncertainty.” (Moloi 2005:5)

In this way, members of the organisation maximises their potential while contributing to the operational and strategically development of the organisation. When an organisation draws from all available potential, not only is there a good flow of communication through the organisation but its influence begins to extend to external variables.