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Adriana (Lesley) X X 2 Alexa (David) X X 2 Alicia (Manny) X X 2 Amanda (Jax) X X 2 Delia (Josue) X X X 3 Fabiola (Javier) X 1 Flor (Lucia) X X X 3 Ingrid (Nayeli) X X X 3 Irene (Kayla) X X 2 Jocelyn (Alma) X X 2 Kristina (Kevin) X X 2 Laura (Isa) X X 2 Marcela (Daniel) X X X 3 Maribel (Diana) X X 2 Marisol (Jacob) X 1 Natalia (Nina) X X 2 Paulina (Hugo) X X X 3 Total 16 15 3 2 1 37

Writes. Sixteen mothers reported that “knowing how to write” was an important school

readiness skill that children had to learn before starting kindergarten. For example, Irene

mentioned that the “only thing Kayla needs to learn is to write her name … to put letters together and write before kindergarten.” Flor shared with us that it was “important for Lucia to know how to write. That’s also important before she starts kindergarten.” Delia would “love for Josue to know how to write,” a sentiment shared by several other mothers. While Kristina reported that it was important for Kevin to “know how to write” before starting kindergarten,” she also

emphasized the importance of Kevin and other children who were in the process of transitioning to also “learn how to write their letters.” Paulina discussed that she would like to see Hugo “Write more words, but more than anything else write complete phrases.”

Jocelyn was pleased that Alma knew how to write letters, but felt they weren’t very clear: “Alma doesn’t write letters clearly yet … people cannot understand her writing. For example, she makes the “E” in a worm shape, she doesn’t write it clearly, but her “A, X, L” are good, but the “E” is confusing!” While all mothers believed that knowing how to write was an important school readiness skill, Amanda felt that writing would help Jax to not feel bad around his peers:

It’s super important because that way he will not feel like a child, sometimes when you don’t know how to do certain things you feel less than your peers. He is going to feel bad, he will not feel good. Because he will see that the other kids are writing and he is not. He will feel bad, of 7

Children’s writing develops from scribbles and symbols to using letters and words to represent meaning (Schickedanz & Casbergue, 2009), and there is a strong connection between drawing and emergent writing (Mackenzie, 2011). 8

Spelling abilities have been linked to letter-writing skills (Puranik, Lonigan, & Kim, 2011), and pre-conventional spelling among young children may be beneficial to learning how to read (Ehri, 1989).

course, it’s logic. His self-esteem is. … It gets low, and it happens more among us, Latinos. That’s how I feel.

Unlike the rest of the mothers, who believed that writing was an important skill that children needed to acquire before starting kindergarten and a sign that children were ready for school, Marisol felt otherwise. When probed on whether a child who didn’t know how to write signified that they were not ready for school, Marisol replied: “No, that’s why children … Jacob, that’s why he’ll be going to school, to learn.” For her, kindergarten was the place where Jacob would learn how to write.

Writes own name. Fifteen mothers focused on the importance of their child being able to

write their name, while others went a step further and felt it was important for children to write their full name, first and last.

When asked what skills and abilities were important for children to acquire before kindergarten, Maribel, Diana’s mother, shared: “Maybe that they know how to write their name.” Alicia proudly stated: “Manny knows how to write his name already.” Unlike Manny, Laura, who also believed it was important for children to learn to write their name, shared that “Isa she needs to know how to write her name. I don’t think she can write it or tell me the name of the letters. I don’t think so. Not yet.”

Although mothers reported that writing their name was an important school readiness skill, many mentioned that their children were struggling. For example, Amanda told us that “It’s important for Jax to enter kindergarten knowing how to write his first name properly … but he writes it wrong. He forgets and puts the “J” like this [draws an upside ‘J’ on a napkin].” Irene shared a similar story about Kayla: “Yes, she can do it [write her name], but she doesn’t do it properly. She tries, but it’s always twisted.” For Jocelyn, she was proud that Alma knew “how to write her name” but laughed that she was the only one able to understand it: “She knows how to write her name … She writes her name and I can understand it, but if someone else tries to read it, it is impossible [laughs]!” Paulina described a similar problem with Hugo’s name writing ability: “He sometimes writes it right, but we’re still stuck on it … He writes his name backwards, and it doesn't matter that I tell him that is not in that way, he keeps writing it wrong.”

Several mothers also mentioned the importance of children writing their full name, first and last. Marisol told us: “Daniel knows how to do his first name, but I would like to see him do his last name as well.” Flor also wanted Lucia to write her full name: “I want Lucia to write her name more than anything … write her name, first and last.” Similarly to Marisol and Flor, Adriana wanted Lesley to learn how to “Write her full name, first and last. Both.” Remembering that her older son, Jonathan, used to complain that his name was too long to write, Adriana went

with a shorter name for her daughter, giving her no excuse not to be able to write her full name: “I felt so bad for Jonathan. He’s like, ‘my name is too long!’” Alexa also told us that for David “not to suffer, or be behind”, she believed it was important for David to “Learn how to write his full name. … he writes his name, he’s working on his last name.”

Mothers in general reported that learning how to write their name was an important school readiness skill, except for Fabiola. When probed on whether learning to write their name was an important skill, Fabiola replied: “No, I don’t think it’s very important that Javier writes his name because I think that he will learn those things there [kindergarten].”

Drawing. Three mothers felt that for a child to be ready for school, they needed to “know

how to draw.” For example, when asked what school readiness meant to Josue’s mother Delia, she replied, “A child who knows how to draw.” Flor’s account was comparable: “You know a child is ready when they can draw.” Drawing and coloring were an important skill for Ingrid, who compared Nayeli’s “Ok drawings” to her goddaughters’: “I have a goddaughter and she amazes me because she knows how to draw and color her drawings very nice. … Nayeli doesn’t have a lot of practice and never says, ‘I am going to draw, mommy.’”

Spelling. In their definitions of school readiness, two mothers included knowing how to

spell. Marcela believed that children like her son Daniel should “know how to spell like three- letter words” before starting kindergarten. Paulina wasn’t very concerned with Hugo spelling words just yet, but did share with us that she wanted Hugo “more than anything to spell…spell his name.”

Tracing. One mother, Kristina, reported that school readiness meant knowing how to

trace. She believed it was important for children, including her son Kevin, to “practice their letters by tracing.”

Emergent reading. Sixteen mothers reported that emergent reading skills were important for school readiness success. Code-related skills that lead to an understanding of print include phonological awareness, the alphabetic principle, and print recognition and meaning (Dickinson & McCabe, 2001; Sparks & Reese, 2013). Included in this cluster were the following three items: Alphabet mastery (n = 16); child reading (n = 10); and phonics (n = 1) (See Table 11).

Table 11. Emergent Reading (n = 17)

Parent (Target Child) Alphabet Mastery Child reading Phonics Total

Adriana (Lesley) X X 2 Alexa (David) X 1 Alicia (Manny) X 1 Amanda (Jax) X X 2 Delia (Josue) X X 2 Fabiola (Javier) X 1 Flor (Lucia) X 1 Ingrid (Nayeli) X X 2 Irene (Kayla) X X 2 Jocelyn (Alma) X 1 Kristina (Kevin) X X 2 Laura (Isa) X X 2 Marcela (Daniel) X X 2 Maribel (Diana) X X 2 Marisol (Jacob) X X 2 Natalia (Nina) X X 2 Paulina (Hugo) X X 2 Total 17 11 1 29

Alphabet mastery. Seventeen participants reported that knowing the alphabet was an

important school readiness skill. Mastery of the alphabet represented the most emergent reading skill that mothers associated with school readiness. For example, Adriana’s and Marisol’s definition of school readiness included alphabet knowledge: “Like practicing their ABCs.” Flor told us that a child is ready for school when they “know some letters.” Laura went a step further than Adriana and Flor and included in her definition of school readiness: “Knows the names of the letters, identifies the letters.” When asked what school readiness meant to Maribel, she told us: “School readiness is like the letters, sometimes they don’t know all the alphabet but know how to distinguish the letters.” Although Jax was having “problems with the alphabet, a little bit,” Amanda still felt it was important that “Jax know the alphabet, of course. Knowing the alphabet improves his reading.” When asked what skills were most important for Javier to know before going to kindergarten, Fabiola told us: “The alphabet. But I don’t remember if he knows the alphabet, I think so, but I am not sure.” Alma’s mother Jocelyn proudly said, “Children need to know the alphabet, Alma knows her alphabet.” Kristina alluded that it’s important for children to know the alphabet in both languages, Spanish and English: “Kevin knows his ABCs, but only knows the letters in Spanish, not English.”

Child reading. Eleven mothers mentioned how reading was an important school

readiness skill. Some mothers talked about the importance of reading, while others wanted their children to start learning how to read before kindergarten.

Amanda believed it was important for Jax to start reading: “I want Jax to read, yes, of course. … I would like that he read.” Delia’s account was similar: “I would love for Josue to be

able to read!” Other mothers, including Kevin’s mother Kristina, felt it was important for children “To know how to read.” Marisol, Jacob’s mother alluded that reading was also an important skill to know: “For them to know how to read …to hold a book correctly.” While Maribel felt that children should be able “to read,” she took it a step further. For children who are unable to read just yet, she believed they should still be able to “interpret what is happening [in a book].” For Natalia, it wasn’t just enough that children “know how to read,” but also that they “like to read.” Marcela’s son Daniel already knew how to read, but she wanted “Daniel to read a little bit more.” Paulina shared with us that Hugo “has started reading,” but that he still needs to learn how to “read complete phrases.”

Phonics. One mother, Irene, believed that “knowing the sounds of letters” was an

important school readiness skill for Kayla and other children transiting to kindergarten. For example, Irene reported that “Children should know how to pronounce the alphabet.” Socio-Emotional Development

Socio-emotional development, social competence, or social behavior development is defined in early childhood literature as the degree to which children are effective in their social interactions with others (Barbarin et al., 2008; Halle & Churchill, 2016). Children’s social- emotional adjustment to preschool classroom demands has been demonstrated to contribute significantly to children’s early school success. Fifteen mothers reported that socio-emotional development was an important school readiness skill. This cluster included the following seven items: Gets along with others (including peers and teachers) (n = 11); adjusts to kindergarten setting (n = 10); child is independent (n = 7); regulates emotions (n = 5); communicates with teachers (n = 4); good manners (n = 3); and turn-taking (n = 1) (See Table 12).

Table 12. Socio-Emotional Development (n = 15) Parent (Target Child) GALWO Adjusts to kindergarten setting Child is independent Regulates emotions Communicates with teachers Good manners9 Turn taking Total Adriana (Lesley) X X 2 Alexa (David) X X X X 4 Alicia (Manny) X X X 3 Amanda (Jax) X X X X 4 Fabiola (Javier) X X X 3 Ingrid (Nayeli) X X 2 Irene (Kayla) X X 2 Jocelyn (Alma) X X X X 4 Kristina (Kevin) X 1 Laura (Isa) X X X 3 Marcela (Daniel) X X 2 Maribel (Diana) X 1 Marisol (Jacob) X X X X 4 Natalia (Nina) X X X 3 Paulina (Hugo) X X X 3 Total 11 10 7 5 4 3 1 41

Notes. GALWO= Gets along with others

9

Learn good manners derives from Barbarin et al., 2008 where he includes it as a component of social competence, or the ability of a child to develop positive relations with peers and adult caregivers.

Gets along with others. Eleven mothers believed that engaging in and maintaining positive interactions and relationships with peers and teachers was an important school readiness skill that children needed to know to be ready for school. Maribel described that children would have the opportunity to engage more with other kids once they entered kindergarten:

It’s important for them to socialize because in kindergarten there are a lot of different kids, more than in the daycare. I imagine that if they know how to socialize, it is easier for them to make new friends and interact.

Knowing how to make friends was not always easy for preschooler Nayeli. Ingrid, who described as Nayeli as “shy,” felt that she needed to learn how to make more friends: “She needs time to talk with the kids, but she doesn’t talk to some of them. I ask her to play with them, and she refuses. … she doesn’t know how to make friends.”

In addition to making friends, mothers felt it was important for children to also know how to be around other children and “learn how to play in a group.” When asked how she knows Alma is ready for school, Jocelyn replied, “Because she can be around other kids.” For Kristina, how to interact with others was a balancing act that children needed to learn: “I've known kids that they either can’t socialize or they are too aggressive when they are socializing because other children don’t want to be friends.” Although she does not consider herself to be aggressive, she did teach Kevin not to be bullied: “I always teach him, the first hit you tell them to stop, if they don’t stop, you tell them the second time to stop it again. If they don't stop that’s it, you are hitting them back.”

Socializing did not only mean getting along with other children. For Kristina, socializing also meant being able to have “normal conversations” with other people:

That is like my number one thing, because I know kids nowadays that are all day attached to the iPads, videogames and they can’t have normal conversations, they just want to talk about these games, want to show you these games…. You ask them “how was your day?” and they answer “I don't know.” Paulina’s account was comparable:

Now kids are not as social, they are in the virtual world. They focus on other things like videogames and that stuff. I feel that it’s bad for kids because it pulls them back instead of helping them to socialize.

For Paulina, socializing children was a mother’s job: “You need to let them socialize with other kids, and if you don't do it that’s a problem. When they go to kindergarten there will be problems.” Encouraging Hugo and reminding him that he had friends was one of the ways that Paulina made sure that Hugo continued to socialize, but more importantly, that he continued to like school:

We need to motivate kids to go to school. They need to know that X friend is waiting. For example, he always tells me, “Mommy, my friend X played with me, or my friend Y did this" and I say, “That’s great!”

Not only was it important for children to “make friends” and “learn to get along with people,” but they also needed also engage with teachers. Amanda told us: “It’s very important for children to how to have a good relationship with teachers.” Alexa’s reason for the importance of children having a good relationship with their teacher was that teachers would be more likely to help them when faced with a problem: “You might not understand a concept, but if you ask a teacher with an attitude, they’re less likely to want to help you than if you go there with a good attitude, and try to get help.”

Natalie incorporated both peers and teachers into her response when describing a child who was not ready:

When they don’t know how to interact with others, but if they are ready … they can stay with classmates and teachers in a class. Nina is not afraid of her classmates or to be a lot of time in the group or with her teacher.

Adjusting to kindergarten setting. Ten parents mentioned that adjusting to the new kindergarten setting via awareness of the new responsibilities and expectations that kindergarten brought, as well as adapting to new environments, peers, and teachers, were important for children to know before they transitioned to kindergarten.

For these three mothers of preschool-aged boys, it was important that they quickly learn that once they begin kindergarten, they could no longer just come home and play. They now had new responsibilities and expectations to meet. For example, Amanda made it clear that

“kindergarten is a new stage” for Jax and that he will have responsibilities that will only be his: “I will help him, but it will be on him to fulfill it… So he can be a responsible kid. It’s very

important.” Being aware that children will now have new responsibilities was something that Paulina also felt was important for children to know, particularly when it came to doing homework: “To be responsible, because once you go to kindergarten they give you homework and you have to be responsible for yourself.” Alexa’s account was comparable: “David’s expectations are going to change. Responsibilities are going to change…. getting home and