Escala de Evaluaci´on para la Enfermedad de Alzheimer 38

The HCI concepts and CLT concepts and principles have already been integrated to some extent by researchers. For example, it was suggested by Oviatt (2006) that the usability principles, for example ‘making a system easy to use and learn’ could reduce ECL and ‘designing a usable learning environment’ was proposed to be beneficial for reducing ECL and, thereby, improving the learning process (Sawicka et al., 2008). In the same way, Chalmers (2003) described the CLT principles for reducing ECL to be methods for enhancing the usability of educational software. It was noted by Clarke et al. (2005) that, when comparing students using spreadsheet software whilst simultaneously teaching mathematics instruction, teaching learners the instructions of spreadsheet applications prior to the mathematics decreased the learners’ cognitive load. Van Nimwegen et al. (2006) illustrated the use of CLT concepts, particularly the concept of GL. The authors note that the effect of ECL is comparable to the effect of externalization, with ECL using WM to take resources away from the task at hand, thereby having a negative effect on GL.

According to the split-attention principle, if some pieces of information are linked to each other and they are all required for a task, Gestalt theory (Chalmers, 2003; Chang et al., 2002) can be applied. Gestalt theory identifies eleven laws addressing educational visual screen design. The split-attention principle has a striking similarly with the usability heuristic principle: “The user should not have to remember information from one part of the dialogue to another” (Nielsen, 2005). Based on the combination of split-attention principle, Gestalt theory and the usability heuristic principle, it can be concluded that all individual pieces of information should be

exhibited appropriately on the screen. The redundancy principle has links with the usability heuristic, claiming that “every extra unit of information in a dialogue competes with the relevant units of information” (Nielsen, 2005). This necessitates the avoidance of information redundancy on the screen. Moreover, both CLT and HCI theories point out that there are individual learner characteristics, especially prior knowledge, that play a significant role in learning outcomes. Some other CLT principles that are designed to reduce cognitive load and to reduce ECL, such as the worked-example principle and the modality principle, seem to have no corresponding reference in HCI theories, probably because these principles are related to the learning processes and instructional design.

Previous research has provided two conceptual models to clarify research into education software design. The first model demonstrates findings from prior research, that cognitive load induced by using a software tool can be represented as a part of ECL (Clarke et al., 2005; Oviatt, 2006; Sawicka et al., 2008) and another component of ECL is created from instructional design itself. The results show that the total amount of ECL created by use of the software can be affected by the complexity of the software, the software design (as rated by traditional usability criteria) and the expertise of the learner with using of the software. The cognitive load can be reduced by either designing highly usable software or by training learners on how to use the software (Clarke et al., 2005; Oviatt, 2006; Salmon, 2000). The component of cognitive load due to software use could be ignored if the software is designed to be very easy to use or the software usage can be automated through training. This model also demonstrates the relationship of CLT principles with traditional HCI design principles by focusing on reducing what CLT refers to as ECL (Chandler & Sweller, 1996). Conventional usability principles are insufficient to make efficient learning because there is still a need to ensure the use of GL in the learning process, however, this requires a greater set of educational principles and/or expertise.

3.6.1 Assessing HCI within learning environments

The adoption of ICT has been constantly increasing; evaluations show that nearly fifty per cent of newly invested assets have been put into ICT infrastructure since the

adopted by their users, otherwise it would be impossible for ICTs to increase productivity. While looking into the contemporary Information Systems (IS) literature, one of the most mature research fields is about user acceptance of new technologies (e.g. Hu et al., 1999). Based on IS, psychology and sociology, researchers have developed theoretical models, which routinely interpret more than forty per cent of the variance in users’ willingness to use a system, for example, the Technology Acceptance Model (Davis et al., 1989). Two essential determinants, out of many variables that may impact system usage, are suggested by researchers. First, the perceived usefulness refers to how the system users believe it will help with improving job performance. Second, the perceived ease of use indicates how hard or easy to use the system. For instance, even though a system is believed to be useful, it may be very difficult to use, thus the benefits of system are not fully achieved. Within a learning context this would mean that a learner may not fully achieve the goals of the learning due to ECL.

3.7 Conclusion

This chapter has presented the increasing role that ICT plays with regard to education and the role of e-learning in reducing cognitive load, which is faced by the learner during the learning process in learning environments. It has presented a number of ways that e-learning tools can be designed with consideration toward the cognitive load of learners. It is critical to understand the different ways in which cognitive load is affected by the use of e-learning tools. Moreover, this chapter showed empirical exploration into the relationship between cognitive load and e-learning strategies, as demonstrated by previous studies. Finally, this chapter presented research into HCI and its similarities when focusing on improving systems design, which, in some aspects, mirrors the methods to reduce cognitive load.

The following chapter will present the methods that will be used in the experiments for the design of tools using integrated instructional design to reduce cognitive load within e-learning environments.

CHAPTER 4:

Designing and Developing the Learning