Escuela y urbanidad

The interdisciplinary method introduced above was applied in this thesis to answer the three questions posed by this research: “what effect(s) have acoustic prosthetic technologies for the ear had upon the user’s perception of acoustic space?”, “how have these devices influenced a shift in the user’s mediated

perception of acoustic space over time?”, and “how have changes in the experience of acoustic space altered the relationship between the individual and their

environment(s)?”

In the early stages of research for this thesis, academic contributions to the fields of media ecology and sound studies were consulted in order to identify the user’s perspective of the experience of sound through prosthetic technologies for the ear. There was a paucity of historical accounts of the use of hearing aids and headphones, specifically the effects that they had upon the user’s experience of sound and sense of acoustic space. Similarly, after a further search of research conducted within the field of medicine over a two-month period, it was also clear that there was a scarcity of first-hand historical accounts of how the physician experienced acoustic space when applying the stethoscope to the body of the patient.

I then decided to further refine the scope of my research, because as discussed earlier in section 3.3, Giedion asserts that it is at the discretion of the historian about which facets of history they choose to focus on, or cast aside. Just as Giedeon selected technologies he believed had the most profound implications

for daily life, I shifted the focus of my research to identify specific areas of innovation and influence within the development of acoustic prosthetic technologies for the ear in order to illustrate how these devices affected the auditory experience of the user. By using Carpenter and McLuhan’s (1960), Ong’s (1982) and Schafer’s (1994) definitions of acoustic space and auditory

environments, talking with individuals who use hearing aids, stethoscopes and/or headphones on an almost daily basis, and reading about the physical, social and cultural implications of acoustic prosthetic technologies for the ear, over the period of six months three specific groups of devices were identified as being sites of significant innovation and influence: hearing aids (developed to ameliorate impaired hearing), the stethoscope (applied to improve the diagnostic capabilities of the physician), and headphones (used to afford privatised experiences of sound and auditory pleasure).

Given the plethora of different makes and models of hearing aids, stethoscopes, and headphones that have been produced over the last two centuries, it was not possible within the scope of this study to consider every device. Rather, once the three groups of representative acoustic prosthetics to be examined in this study had been identified, it was important to trace their

historical evolution in order to determine whether it was possible that the devices in each of these groups had altered the user’s perception of sound and acoustic space in a significant and/or meaningful way. A broad and intensive search for archival information pertaining to each of the three different groups of prosthetics

was undertaken in 2015 over a twelve-month period. The primary purpose of this search was to, first, identify why these devices had been invented; second, who they were intended to be used by, and finally, how that mediated sound may have been experienced by the user.

This research was undertaken by identifying relevant textbooks on acoustic space, sound, and personal auditory devices such as the Walkman and iPod. In addition, at least half of the information identified during this period was found by identifying and accessing online material such as databases of academic journals in medicine, media ecology, sound studies and phenomenology, alongside digitalised museum collections of hearing aids and stethoscopes. It became evident that I needed to also scour other potential sources of pertinent information, just as Giedion (1948; 2013) had done. These sources included antique medical device websites, patents, treatises, newspaper articles, trade magazines, letters to the editors of journals and newspapers, biographical accounts from hearing impaired individuals, print advertisements, user guides sourced directly from hearing aid and headphone manufacturers, and medical journals from the nineteenth and early twentieth century available via the Internetarchive.

Particular emphasis was placed on locating archival material which detailed the ways in which sound was experienced through different types of hearing aids, the stethoscope and headphones, and information about how these mediated auditory experiences differed from how sound was experienced through the naked, unmediated ear. This process confirmed the original decision to focus on these

three devices as reflecting the effects on users’ perceptions of acoustic space across time. However, I found that despite being able to identify some worthy material pertaining to each of the three groups of acoustic prosthetics discussed in this thesis, there was evidence of a scarcity of historical accounts about how the user experienced sound through the three devices selected for analysis. It then became evident that it was necessary to integrate a second methodological strategy into the approach applied in this thesis in order to, first, illustrate and provide further insight into the experience of sound afforded through the use of various acoustic prosthetic devices from a human perspective, and second, answer the three questions posed by this thesis. In order to achieve this outcome, I decided that it was necessary to spend some three months reading and becoming familiar with the phenomenological study of sound, in particular Don Ihde’s (1979; 2007) post- phenomenological theory of the embodiment of technological artefacts,

specifically how the formation of an embodiment relation between the human user and their device alters how the user perceives the world in some way.

I chose to integrate this phenomenological approach as it enabled the examination of how acoustic prosthetics altered the user’s experience of sound and acoustic space, which somewhat compensated for the absence of relevant

historical documents to support my discussion. In addition, this historical

phenomenological approach also allowed me to explore the nuances of the ‘lived’ experience of sound and acoustic space as central to this study, in part from drawing upon my own experiences of using various acoustic prosthetic

technologies for the ear. Duly, a further two months were dedicated to exploring the possibility of how the concept of the embodiment relations could be applied to each acoustic devices examined in this thesis in order to illuminate how these prosthetic technologies for the ear altered the user’s experience of sound, acoustic space, and their environment, as well as drawing attention to shifts in the

perception of acoustic space across history.

It is, however, important to acknowledge that certain tensions arise through the integration of these different approaches into the methodological framework applied in this study. The use of anonymous history and phenomenology in this thesis draws attention to the paradoxical nature of these two theories. Anonymous history, as discussed earlier in section 3.3, is primarily concerned with the

examination of existing historical documentation and inanimate objects in order to reveal the impact(s) that these devices had upon daily life in both the past and the present. Consequently, anonymous history essentially captures historical experiences that are not that of the self. Phenomenology, on the other hand, focuses upon ‘lived’ experience and the essence of perception (Ihde, 2007; Merleau-Ponty, 2013. As discussed in section 3.4, phenomenology is essentially based upon first-hand descriptions of how the world presents itself to humankind (Bullington, 2013). Furthermore, phenomenology typically rejects objectivity in favour of subjective first-hand accounts of the experience of different phenomena. Consequently, a tension arises by bringing these two theories together as it is not possible to have first-hand access to historical experience(s).

Yet in spite of this conflict, this study uses anonymous history and phenomenology in such a way whereby these two approaches ultimately

compliment each other, as combining the two provides a means through which to conduct a form of historical phenomenology. As discussed earlier in section 3.4, anonymous history and phenomenology are integrated into the study applied in this thesis in order to achieve the aims of this research, namely to trace the evolution of acoustic prosthetic technologies for the ear in order to reveal the nuances of different mediated experiences of acoustic space across history.

As Curran and Kearney (2012) explain, “if phenomenology can be

characterised as the study of sense experience from a first person point of view, then historical phenomenology can be characterised as the study of sense experience during a specific historical past” (p. 353). Within the scope of this study, insights into sensory experience, specifically the perception of sound and acoustic space, are garnered through existing historical accounts wherever

possible, as “texts represent bodily experience” (Smith, 2000, p. 326). For example, similar approaches to historical phenomenology have been applied in recent years within the realm of Shakespeare studies, whereby Shakespeare’s texts are analysed in order to reveal how human sensory experiences were described and understood at the time in which he was writing. Such analysis thus enables researchers to compare differences in experience and emotions between the past and the present. In a similar vein, this study also draws from texts in the form of first-hand

historical accounts of the use of various forms of acoustic devices wherever possible, namely hearing aids, the stethoscope and headphones.

These subjective, historical narratives not only provide valuable insight into not only how the user experienced sound through the use of these devices, but also how different forms of acoustic prosthetics altered the user’s sense of hearing, and ultimately their experience of acoustic space. For example, anonymous history examines the physicality of various objects, such as a spoon or a vacuum cleaner, and explains how the invention and use of everyday objects impacted day-to-day life during a particular epoch. The addition of phenomenology, however, provides a way to consider and explore the nuances of mediated experiences of sound across different periods. By integrating a phenomenological perspective, it is not only possible to examine how various acoustic prosthetic devices reproduced sound, but also what how sound, and therefore acoustic space, were perceived by the user.

While this hybridised approach provides a practical means by through which provide valuable insight into how acoustic prosthetic technologies altered the experience of sound and acoustic space, the limitations of this approach must also be acknowledged. The primary challenge of applying this methodological framework was that was not always possible to find historical documentation and/or narratives that described the use of each of the acoustic prosthetic devices examined in this thesis. In such cases, it was necessary to speculate about the possible effects that these devices had upon the user’s experience of sound and

acoustic space based upon the physical attributes of the device itself in

conjunction with other forms of historical documentation such as advertisements. However, in such cases whereby the description of the user’s experience of sound and acoustic space is predominantly based upon speculation have been clearly signposted to the reader.

Summary

This thesis presents a study informed by media ecology that traces an anonymous history of acoustic space through the lens of acoustic prosthetic technologies for the ear. This research applies an innovative interdisciplinary method informed by media archaeology, specifically Giedion’s (2013) approach to anonymous history, and an approach to post-phenomenology informed by Ihde’s (1979; 2007) theory of embodiment relations. In doing so it presents an historical phenomenology of acoustic space. As this chapter has discussed, the integration of these approaches into this study’s method affords the opportunity to not only trace the history of acoustic prosthetic technologies across key areas of innovation and application, but to also provide insight into how each of these acoustic devices reshaped the perception of acoustic space for the wearer.

In the spirit of media archaeology, in particular anonymous history, this study takes an unconventional approach to the writing of a history of technology. It does not follow a strict linear structure, but rather explores the development and use of acoustic prosthetic devices across three key areas of innovation: hearing

aids, the stethoscope, and the use of headphones for the primary purpose of auditory pleasure. In so doing, this study also draws attention to why each of these sites have been identified as playing an integral role in the technological evolution of acoustic prosthetic devices, and the ways in which they mediated, and therefore altered, the perception of acoustic space for the user.

The integration of this novel approach to the study of acoustic space through the lens of prosthetics for the ear also enables this research to add to the existing body of knowledge pertaining to acoustic space and auditory prosthetics. It does this by drawing further attention to the influence of these devices on not only the perception of sound and acoustic space, but also on the user’s perception of the world around them, through a ‘re-tuning’ of the mind’s ear. Furthermore, this methodological strategy also affords a means by which to consider how the mediated perception of acoustic space has shifted over time, and how the changes in the ways in which the mediated perception of acoustic space altered the user’s experience of, and relationship to, their surrounding environment. Finally, the development of the method applied in this thesis also makes a potential

contribution by offering a practical approach for future historical research that considers the influence of media in instances where archival documentation is limited.

CHAPTER FOUR

A phenomenological anonymous history of hearing aids

4.1 Introduction

Hearing aids are acoustic prosthetic technologies for the ear that have the potential to alter the perception and experience of sound and acoustic space for individuals with impaired hearing. Worn in, around or behind the ear, hearing aids assist, or enhance, the user’s ability to hear sounds they might not clearly perceive through the weakened, unaided ear. To date, hearing aids have been used as devices that enable individuals with a deficit in hearing to increase their level of participation in daily activities by helping to lessen “the specific problems faced by hearing impaired people and so improve their life quality” (Dillon, 2012, p. 2). Hearing aid historian Neil Bauman argues that the primary purpose of hearing aids has essentially remained unchanged despite significant advances in audio

technology, as “people are still the same as they were 150 years ago. They want to hear better without drawing attention to themselves” (personal communication, 2 November 2017). According to audiologist Robert Sandlin (1995) the efficiency and capabilities of these acoustic technologies for the ear have increased exponentially over the last fifty years with advances in electronic and digital technology. Indeed, considerable technological progress in the capacity of hearing aids to reproduce sound has not only enhanced the wearer’s ability to perceive sounds more clearly through amplification and sound processing technologies, but has also made it

possible for the user to curate customised experiences of sound. This, in turn, has further changed the ways in which acoustic space is perceived.

Despite the ubiquity of hearing aids in Western society, and an abundance of scholarship (Bennion, 1994; Berger, 197o; Dillon, 2012; Goldenberg, 1996; Kranz, 1941; Sandlin, 1995; Schaub, 2008; Simko, 1986; Tate, 2013; Tobin, 1997; Valente, 2002), existing research has largely neglected to reflect on the phenomenological effects of these prosthetic technologies for the ear, in particular their influence on the construction, perception and experience of acoustic space. That is to say, literature has overlooked, first, how hearing aids alter the user’s perception of sound, and second, the ways in which these prosthetic devices have evolved to facilitate and modify the perception of acoustic space. Largely undertaken within the fields of medicine and audiology, such research has primarily focused upon thresholds of auditory acuity and hearing loss, approaches to matching the most suitable aid to the patient, and the capacity for hearing aids to amplify and reproduce certain acoustic frequencies. Indeed, as previously noted in Chapter Two, Bregman (1990) observes that “if you were to pick up a general textbook on perception written before 1965 and leaf through it, you would not find any great concern with the perceptual or ecological questions about audition” (p. 1). While phenomenologist Don Ihde (2007) briefly touches on the embodied experience of wearing hearing aids in his study of the phenomenology of sound, his discussion is brief, limited to his own experience of digital hearing aids prior to 2007.

which the technological evolution of hearing aids over the last two hundred years has contributed, first, to changing modes in the mediated perception of sound, or second, the extent of these changes upon the user’s perception of acoustic space.

This oversight is a problem, as until research is conducted to address these shortcomings it will not be possible to fully move beyond the notion of the mind-body dualism, argued by Rene Descartes (1983), whereby the mind and the body are

considered to be distinctly separate from one another (Almog, 2002; Baker & Morris, 2005; Braider, 2012; Clarke; 2003; Ryle, 2018). The mind-body problem holds that “the mind is an entirely immaterial thing without any extension in it whatsoever, and, conversely, the body is an entirely material thing without any thinking in it at all”

(Skirry, 2005, p. 5). By approaching the effects of hearing aids from a phenomenological perspective, it could equally be argued that this is not the case as an embodiment

relationship is formed between the wearer and their device, effectively changing the way that they experience, and interact, with the world around them.

While affording the potential to make sounds louder and provide a direct pathway for that sound to the ear, hearing aids also likely shift the user’s perceptual access to their immediate acoustic environment. Drawing on this insight, this chapter re-reads these devices historically from antiquity to the present. It argues that as hearing aid technology has continued to progress, devices that were

ostensibly designed to connect hearing impaired individuals to the world paradoxically became devices that isolated the wearer in a singular, customised auditory world of their own making. In doing so, it illustrates that the wider

significance of hearing aids does not lie solely in their technical ability to augment the ear and sense of hearing through amplification, but also in the ways that they