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Values refer to a set of core beliefs that define the way in which one ought to behave in a variety of situations (Kuper, 2006:17). Values are important in the context of spiritual leadership because they assist spiritual leaders and their

followers to live their higher purpose and find meaning at work, while offering moral guidance on their behaviour (Ferguson and Milliman, 2008:443). A core positive value system refers to values that are virtuous, ethically based and spiritual in nature. This core positive value system or fundamental values as Zohar and Marshall (2004:87) call them, should be based on the values of altruistic love, which are characterised by unselfish and genuine intentions (Fry et al., 2011). Positive values assist the spiritual leader to transcend the ego and serve others (Altman, 2010). Operating from explicit core positive values separates spiritual leadership from other leadership theories, in that the motives of a spiritual leader are founded on genuine and pure intentions (Fry and Kriger, 2009).

In Chapter Two a comparative analysis was conducted to identify the following eight core values for a spiritual leader, namely: altruistic love; integrity/honesty;

ubuntu (compassion/empathy, humility, respect/dignity); service; trust;

forgiveness/acceptance; gratitude/positive use of adversity; and reflective practice. These values were selected on the basis that they have all been reviewed empirically and many are present in both spiritual and traditional leaders. However, certain values that are generally associated with spiritual leadership such as altruistic love, gratitude/positive use of adversity, forgiveness/acceptance and reflective practice were included to distinguish this model from other leadership models governed by values. Key behavioural indicators and examples of the questions designed to measure the indicators for each of the core positive values are discussed below.

Altruistic love/caring/concern

Love may be based on either altruistic or ego driven motives (Zohar and Marshall, 2000:239; Fry et al., 2011). A spiritual leader is driven by love⁵⁸ that is selfless, unconditional and altruistic. Altruistic love may be defined as a “sense of wholeness, harmony, and well-being produced through care, concern, and appreciation for both self and others” (Fry et al., 2011:4). Altruistic love increases the level of commitment, synergy, creativity and quality among individuals in organisations (Caldwell and Dixon, 2010:93), because this type of love does not control but empowers and nurtures others (Zukav, 1990:212).

A leader with altruistic love usually demonstrates the following behaviours:

selflessness (Zohar and Marshall, 2000); absence of judgment (Covey, 2004:74);

genuine concern and care for others (Caldwell and Dixon, 2010:92); alleviates the suffering of people (Fry et al., 2007:35); seeks the best for others by assisting them with no personal interest or hope of financial gain; and a willingness to accept personal sacrifice (Patterson, 2003:17).

The behavioural indicators were operationalised by asking the following questions:

• How important is it for public service leaders to show genuine care by taking the interests of others into account in their service to others and with no expectations of personal gain? (Caldwell and Dixon, 2010:92)

• How important is it for public service leaders to be selfless in the workplace? (Zohar and Marshall, 2000)

• How important is it for public service leaders to alleviate the suffering of others in the work that they do? (Fry et al., 2007:35)

58 Altruistic love is also referred to as appreciation (Cashman, 2004:125), caring and an unconditional commitment to promoting the wellness and happiness of others (Caldwell and Dixon, 2010:91) within an organisational context.

• To what extent do public service leaders assist others without the expectation of gain? (Patterson, 2003:17)

Integrity/honesty/authenticity/courage

Integrity and honesty are closely associated as they are both concerned with truth. Integrity involves behaving in a manner that is consistent with one’s espoused values (Fry and Kriger, 2009:1681), with the result that there is complete congruence between one’s values and behaviour (Cashman, 1998:122). Honesty, which is a component of integrity, refers to being truthful in one’s behaviours and thoughts (Fry and Kriger, 2009:1681). Both integrity and honesty promote authentic behaviour (Ferguson and Milliman, 2008:454; Fry and Kriger, 2009:1681). However, integrity extends beyond merely telling the truth and involves being true to one’s highest values, convictions and conscience (Covey, 2004:348). Personal integrity enhances followers’ respect, trust, working relationships and business outcomes (Reaves, 2005:657, 669). Courage is also a core component of integrity, as spiritual leaders need to be brave in order to stand up for their convictions and speak the truth.

Integrity and honesty are critical in the South African public service in view of the high incidence of corruption and unethical practices. The White Paper on Transforming Public Service Delivery stipulates that openness and transparency (elements of integrity and honesty) “are hallmarks of a democratic government and are fundamental to the public service transformation process” (Department of Public Service and Administration, 1997:20).

A leader with integrity/honesty may be recognised as demonstrating the following behaviours: consistency and congruency between his/her beliefs and actions (Covey, 2004); without false pride (Fry et al., 2007:35); standing up for his/her convictions and living up to his/her conscience (Zohar and Marshall, 2004);

promoting transparency in an organisation (Fry et al., 2007:35); and rising above  

office politics and negative attitudes in an organisation (Zohar and Marshall, 2004).

The behavioural indicators may be operationalised by asking the following questions:

• How important is it for public service leaders to be honest and without false pride in the workplace? (Fry et al., 2007:35)

• In general, to what extent are you able to rely on public service leaders to behave ethically? (Covey, 2004)

• How important is transparency in the workplace? (Fry et al., 2007:35)

• How important is it to ‘walk the walk and talk the talk’? (Fry et al., 2007:35)

• To what extent are the behaviours of public service leaders consistent with what they say and think? (Zohar and Marshall, 2004)

• To what extent do you agree with the statement: ‘Spiritual leaders should support office politics and gossip in the department even if it goes against their convictions? (Zohar and Marshall, 2004)

Ubuntu (compassion/empathy, humility, respect/dignity)

Ngunjiri (2011:255) argues that the value of ubuntu is present in the African and Western conceptualisations of spiritual leadership.⁵⁹ Ubuntu embraces core spiritual leadership values such as compassion, respect, dignity, empathy and humility with the intention of strengthening a community (Mangaliso, 2001:26;

Poovan et al., 2006:17). The spirit of ubuntu is evident in the South African Bill of Rights in that the values of respect, dignity and compassion figure prominently.

A leader with ubuntu may be recognised as demonstrating the following behaviours: recognises and alleviates the suffering of others (Fry et al., 2007);

59 In addition to ubuntu, Ngunjiri also found that other values such as beneficence, courage and hope ubuntu are also present in both African and Western conceptualisations of spiritual leadership (Ngunjiri, 2011:755).

modest with regards to accomplishments; unassuming and unpretentious; able to share the success of others and recognise their contributions (Patterson, 2003:15); openness to receiving advice and criticism from others (Patterson, 2003:12; Zohar and Marshall, 2004:105); going out of his/her way to assist others (Cooper and Sawaf, 1998:337); holds other people in high regard and shows respect; appreciates diversity by valuing the values, opinions and possessions of others; admits to making mistakes (Zohar and Marshall, 2004:105); and treats others in a way in which he/she would like to be treated (Zohar and Marshall, 2004:94).

The behavioural indicators may be operationalised by asking the following questions:

• To what extent is it important for public service leaders to be concerned about and alleviate the suffering of others? (Fry et al., 2007)

• To what extent do you agree with the statement ‘I am my sister/brother’s keeper because my sister/brother is myself’? (Zohar and Marshall, 2004:94)

• How relevant is it for public service leaders to go out of their way to assist someone who is in trouble in the workplace? (Cooper and Sawaf, 1998:337)

• To what extent is it relevant for public service leaders to admit to making mistakes in the workplace? (Zohar and Marshall, 2004:105)

• To what extent is it relevant for public service leaders to take advice and criticism from others in the workplace? (Patterson, 2003:12)

• To what extent is it relevant for public service leaders to value another person’s experiences, values, opinions and possessions in the workplace?

(Zohar and Marshall, 2004:105)        

Service

A spiritual leader’s sense of calling motivates him/her to serve others (Fry et al., 2011:12). Despite the fact that service is a primary element of servant leadership (Earnhardt, 2008:18), service is also relevant for spiritual leadership because it contributes to individuals finding meaning and purpose (Neal, 2008:381).

Pattakos (2004:108) found that a primary reason why people joined the public service was to make a difference. Service is particularly pertinent to the public service because governments are fundamentally concerned about ‘service’

(Neal, 2008:377). Sendjaya et al. (2008:410) argue that service should be underpinned by ethical principles. The ethos underpinning both Chapter 10 of the Constitution of South Africa (1996) and the White Paper on Transforming Public Service Delivery (1997) is service. The aim of both these documents is to instil values and principles that will improve the way in which the public is served and, thereby, improve service delivery.

A leader who serves may be recognised as demonstrating the following behaviours: uplifts the conditions of employees in the workplace and in communities (Wolf, 2004:25); places the interests of others before his/her own interests (Patterson, 2003:25); gives generously of his/her time, belongings, care and compassion (Patterson, 2003:25); and provides support in order to assist front-line staff and clients.

The behavioural indicators may be operationalised by asking the following questions:

• To what extent is it relevant for public service leaders to contribute to uplifting the conditions of colleagues and also communities? (Wolf, 2004:25)

• To what extent do you agree with the statement: ‘Public service leaders should always receive a benefit when they serve others’? (Patterson, 2003:25)

• How important is it for public service leaders to support junior colleagues in the workplace? (Patterson, 2003:25)

Trust

Trust “is the confidence one party has in another party’s integrity and reliability and is an underpinning of collaboration” (Standifer, Evans and Dong, 2010:138).

Trust involves selecting relationships based on the character, ability, strength and truthfulness of others (Fry and Kriger, 2009:1681).

Trust is observable in spiritual leaders who demonstrate the following behaviours: sharing information with employees (Zohar and Marshall, 2004:133);

delegating responsibilities and relinquishing control (Klenke, 2005:59); honouring agreements (Klenke, 2005:59) and demonstrating reciprocal giving between leader and colleagues (Klenke, 2005:59).

In the study, trust was measured by asking the following questions:

• To what extent is it important for a public service leader to share important information with all employees? (Zohar and Marshall, 2004:133)

• To what extent is it important for a public service leader to delegate responsibility and relinquish control? (Klenke, 2005:59)

• To what extent do employees need to rely on each other in order to accomplish a task? (Klenke, 2005:59)

• To what extent is it important for a public service leader to honour agreements in the workplace? (Klenke, 2005:59)

• Rate the following reasons why a public service leader would trust an employee:

o Competence of the individual o Power relationships

o Political affiliation o Individual’s actions

Forgiveness

Forgiveness involves choosing to forgive by showing acceptance and gratitude rather than being weighed down by negative thoughts/experiences such as jealousy, gossip, failed expectations, hatred and revenge (Fry and Kriger, 2009:1681). The acceptance of a higher purpose often assists spiritual leaders to transcend their egos or subjugate their needs (Reaves, 2005:666) and forgive seemingly unforgiveable wrongdoing (Parameshwar, 2005:708). Caldwell and Dixon (2010:94) maintain that forgiveness is important because it contributes to liberating both parties from toxic emotions such as anger, resentment and blame that deplete people’s energy and impede performance. Forgiveness is a particularly important value for spiritual leaders in the South African public service because it would enable the spiritual leader to rise above the deep-seated scars resulting from apartheid and operate on a spiritual level by perceiving both the bigger picture and the interrelatedness of everything.

A leader who is forgiving may be recognised as demonstrating the following behaviours: letting go, moving on and not harbouring either resentment or anger (Covey, 2004:179); learning from his/her mistakes and also the mistakes of others (Caldwell and Dixon, 2010:93); and showing acceptance and gratitude rather than being filled with hatred and revenge (Fry and Kriger, 2009:1681).

Forgiveness was measured in the study by way of the following questions:

• To what extent is it important for a public service leader to let go and move on from a situation in which the leader was harmed? (Covey, 2004:179)

• To what extent is it important for public service leaders to learn from their own mistakes and also from the mistakes of others? (Caldwell and Dixon, 2010:93)

• To what extent do you agree with the statement: ‘It is acceptable for public service leaders to take revenge if they have been harmed’? (Fry and Kriger, 2009:1681)

Gratitude/positive use of adversity

According to Cicero (106–43 BC) “gratitude is not only the greatest of virtues, but the parent of all virtues” (Wood, Joseph and Linley, 2007:18). Parameshwar (2005:708) maintains that thankfulness or gratitude is a core universal value that is transformative because it enables spiritual leaders to transcend their egos. In the context of the South African public service gratitude is a particularly important value in view of the pervasive culture of entitlement. Wood et al. (2007:19) explain that gratitude generates a virtuous cycle of appreciation, with an upward cycle occurring when a grateful person returns a favour which, in turn, encourages the other person to return a new favour. Conversely, ungrateful people are likely to overlook support and are less likely to reciprocate if help is offered to them.

A leader who operates with gratitude may be recognised as demonstrating the following behaviours: showing appreciation of a positive outcome, even if the positive outcome is perceived as either not earned or deserved (Wood et al., 2007:19); showing mutual support and a willingness to reciprocate a kind deed (Wood et al., 2007:19); willing to learn from experiences that either support and/or challenge one (Demartini, 2008:14); and a willingness to learn from adversity (Zohar and Marshall, 2004:103).

The behavioural indicators may be operationalised by asking the following questions:

• To what extent is it important for public service leaders to show appreciation for a positive outcome, even if the positive outcome is perceived as either not earned or deserved? (Wood et al., 2007:19)

• To what extent is it important for public service leaders to learn from experiences that either support and/or challenge? (Wood et al., 2007:19)

• To what extent is it important for public service leaders to learn from adversity or negative experiences? (Zohar and Marshall, 2004:103)

Reflective practice

Reflective practice involves spiritual practices that range from acts of kindness to introspective practices, such as connecting with a Higher Power, meditation, journaling, prayer, reading inspirational books, yoga and/or spending time in nature (Reaves, 2005:678; Fry, 2009:81). This study adopts the perspective that there is a distinction between spirituality and religion. Accordingly, spiritual leaders may perform non-religious spiritual practices that involve reflecting on one’s own and others’ actions with a view to learning from one’s own and others’

strengths and weaknesses. Studies show that reflective practices involving meditation improve the leader’s ability to cope with stress, anxiety and burnout (Reaves, 2005:658), as well as enhancing work satisfaction, commitment and performance, and improving relationships (Reaves, 2005:679).

A leader who performs reflective practice may be recognised as demonstrating the following behaviours: reframing his/her experience from a wider perspective (Zohar and Marshall, 2005:100); viewing a situation honestly and not from a distorted perspective (Zohar and Marshall, 2004:100); meditating or reflecting quietly (Reaves, 2005:679); and being self-reflective and self-aware (Covey, 2004:345).

The behavioural indicators may be operationalised by asking the following questions:

• To what extent is it important for public service leaders to view experiences from a different perspective? (Zohar and Marshall, 2005:100)

• To what extent is it important for public service leaders to participate in reflective practices such as meditation, silent reflection or journaling?

(Reaves, 2005:679)

• To what extent is it important for public service leaders to self-reflect and to be self-aware? (Covey, 2004:345)