Like the Satparamitasamgrahasutra, the Buddhavadanasutras originated from the period of sectarian Buddhism. These texts formed the prelude to the emerging tradition of Mahayana Buddhism. It is necessary to discuss them here because the ideas and practices of the bodhisattvas partly originated from these sources. The Mahaprajhaparamitasastra states,
"The discourses o f great length ( Vaipulya-sutra) are called Mahayana [snfr&s]. They are the Prajnaparamita-sutra, Satparamitasaingraha-sutra, Puspahasta-sutia, Saddhamapmdanka-sutra, . . . Buddhavadana-nidana-sutra. . . 372
The Avadana-sutra . . . Puspahasta-sutra, Saddharmapuiidanka sutra . . . Satparamitasamgraha - sutra [and] Mahaprajnaparamita- sutra. . . (these) are called Mahayana (sutras) "m
It is clear that in addition to the Satparamitasamgrahasutra, the Mahaprajnaparamita-sastra also refers to the Avadana-sutra and to the Buddhavadana-nidana-sutra. Mahayanists originally considered the Avadana and the Nidana as two separate categories in the twelve
fold classification of Buddhist scriptures. However, in the Northern tradition of Buddhism, these terms are not normally distinguished from one another, but they are amalgamated under the name of Buddha-avadana or Buddha-avadana-nidana, as attested in the Mahaprajnaparamita-sastra. In fact, the Avadana and the Nidana appertain to the biographical texts of Sakyamuni Buddha.
There are four Avadana texts 374 in Chinese translation. In addition to these, the Mahavastu-avadana of the Lokottaravadins and the Nidanakatha of the Theravadins also belong to the biographical texts of Sakyamuni Buddha. There are six Nidana texts375 in Chinese translations. In these texts, the Buddha ordains and establishes the Samgha, sets forth the discipline for monks, and gives teachings. These six texts show certain connections with the Vinayapitaka in addition to explaining bodhisattva practices.
Among all the biographical texts of Sakyamuni Buddha in the context of conservative Buddhism, it is the Avadanasuti'a (ben-qi-jing which inherited the spirit of the Dighagama-sutra. It advocates the glory, the great accomplishments, and abundantly narrates the supernatural activities of the Buddha. A good example of this glorification is the account in which the Buddha is born from the right side of his mother, takes seven steps towards the four directions and declares, “in the heaven and under the heaven, I am the only venerable one.”376
Such narratives concerning supernatural events, not normally seen in earlier Buddhism, served to inspire faith in ordinary people. Furthermore, in the six Nidana texts we find many new statements referring to the practices and achievements of the Buddha. For instance, the Xiu-xing-ben-qi-jing records,
"The bodhisattva who for ninety-one kalpas has practised morality and virtues, produced the thought o f enlightenment ( bodlncittotpada, practised the six paramitas . . . worked diligently through
374 1. Xiu-xing-ben-qi-jing (T3:0461, No.0184), 2. Tai-zi-rui-ying- hen-qi-jing
(T3:0472, No,0185), 3. Yi-chu-pu-sa- (T3:0617, No.0188), 4. Zhong- ben-qi-jing (T4:0147, No.0199).
375 2. 4.
6.
176
many kalpas, and who has become an expert in the practices o f the ten bhumis, is at the stage o f attaining buddhahood within one-life time . . . He is completely enlightened and possesses the samyak- sainbodhi. He is the supreme enlightened one, has the eighteen uncommon qualities, possesses the ten supernormal powers and the four kinds o f fearlessness . . . [and] abides in the pure anutpattikadhannaksanti."377
Here the six paramitas constitute the course for bodhisattvas to follow, and the ten bhumis constitute the progressive stages of cultivation for the bodhisattva to ascend. The concepts of anutpattikadhannaksanti and the eighteen uncommon qualities are new as they are not contained in the Tripitaka of conservative Buddhism, With the exception of the eighteen uncommon qualities, the other important concepts are also found in the Tai-zi-rui-ying- ben-qi-jing378 and the Guo-qu-xian-zai-yin-guo-jing?19
0 orj q o i
In the texts such as the Fo-ben-xing-ji-jing, the Fo-shuo-pu-yao-jing and the Fang- guang-da-zhuang-yan-jing, it is said that the bodhisattva, who is at the stage of attaining buddhahood in one lifetime, expounds one hundred and eight teachings on enlightenment (bodhidharmaparyayas) to deities of the celestial realm of Tusita. The one hundred and eight bodhidhannaparyayas named in the Fang-guang-da-zhuang-yan-jing are grouped into twenty categories:
1) faith, pure mind, joy and being keen on gaining happiness 2 ) discipline o f the body, speech and mind
3) recollection (anusmrti) o f the Buddha, the Dharma, the Samgha, the generosity and morality, and having mindfulness with regard to the heavens 4) maitn (kindness), karuiia (compassion), mudita (sympathetic joy),
and upeksa (equanimity)
5) impermanence, suffering, non-substance (anatman), and sand (or vivikta) 6) shame (hn, tiff), guilt {trapa, life), truth (satya, «$r), and reality {bhuta, ’M.) 7) acting according to dharma ( dharmacarya, }dkfx), taking refuge in the
triple gem, knowing what one does, and understanding the meaning o f what one does
8) the knowledge o f oneself, o f sentient beings, and o f the dharmas 9) knowledge of time
10) the destruction o f arrogance (mada), having no mind to hamper others (M
377 ( Carya-nidana), T3:0462b, 0463a, 0471c -472a, No. 184. This text was translated by Mahabala and Kang Mngxiang in 197 CE. It is one of the early translations and presents the bodhisattva ideal.
378 T3, No.185, tr. Zhi Qian, ca. 222-253 CE.
379 T3, No. 189, (Sutra on the cause and effect o f the p a st and present), tr.
Gunabhadra (394-468 CE).
380 Abhini, tr. Jfianagupta, ca.560-600 CE, T3, No. 190
381 {Lalitavistara-sutra), tr. Dharmaraksa, ca. 265-291 CE, T3, No. 186 382 ( Vaipulya-mahavyuha-sutra), tr. Divakara, 613-687 CE, T3, No. 187.
383 See T3:0544b-0545a. Fang-guang-da-zhuang-yian-jhig ^ lf± M ( Vaipulya-mahavyuha-sutra) was translated into Chinese by Divakara in 683 CE. See T3:0539ff, No.0187. An earlier translation of this text is entitled the Pu-yia o -jing 7a i® {Lalita vis tar a -sutra), which is a Chinese version o f the Lalitavistara translated by Darmaraksa in 308 CE); see T3:0483ff, No.0186.
Plifill'fr), non-enmity, and excellent understanding (JH/Sf)
11) the contemplatation on the impure (asubha), non-hatred (advesa), and non
delusion (amoha)
12) seeking the dharmas; enjoying the dharmas, great learning ( bahusruta), having skill in means ( upayakausalya)
13) knowing all types of namarupa "fe), rooting out the sources o f [wrong] views and the removal o f the ragamudhaya (I^T'itB^);
14) skilful means ( # 1 5 ) , the equality o f the nature o f the dhatus non- clinging C f 1R, anupadana), and anutpadaksanti
15) the four smrty-upasthanani, the four samyak-prahanam, the four rddhi- padas, the five indriyani, the five balani, the seven factors o f
enlightenment, and the Noble Eightfold Way
16) the thought o f enlightenment ( bodhicitta) , , great mental happiness mahamanasukha, ikM W i), increased happiness
( uttaramanasukha, _L ® H ) increased happiness), and right action with skill ( upayasamyakcarita, A fEIE'lT)
17) the six perfections (paramita), upayakausalya, and the four saingrahavastuni 18) ripening sentient beings, accepting and preserving samyakdharma
19) merit (puiiya), wisdom {prajna), concentration {samadhi), and the viprasana 20) special knowledge (pratisamvid, l!(ld$IM-)> righteous choice (ifej^), dharaius (!$£
H IE), and eloquence in argument (pratibhanapratisamvid\ $ $ # )
21 ) initiative acceptance o f the Dharma (anulomikidharmaksantij Jill 'ik & )), acceptance o f the Dharma {anutpattikadhannaksanti), the irreversible stage (avaivartakabhumi), progress in bhumis (fiitilliipMI:), and the [stage of] consecration {abhiseka, ^ T I).
In the thirteenth group above, ‘the equality of the nature of the dhatus5 signifies the separation from all the causes of suffering. Non-clinging signifies that the six faculties
{indriyas)
are notattached to anything. The bodhisattva practices consist o f the
bodhimarga.
Theanutpaimaksanti
denotes the attainment ofniiYana.
Among the one hundred and eight bodhidharmaparyayas, those in groups 1-14 are practised by all followers of the three yanas. The bodhidhaimaparyayas from bodhicitta (group 15) onwards are the bodhisattvadharmas. This text also explains the bodhicitta, the six paramitas, the upayakausalya, the anutpattikadhannaksanti, the dharanis and finally the bhumis. It is appropriate to indicate that the most salient teachings of the Mahayana are attested in the texts which deal with the Buddha’s biography.
Taking into account the teachings outlined above, it is not surprising that the Fo-ben-qi- jing ( i% ^ M Buddhavadana-sutra) 384 is regarded as a Mahayana text in the Mahaparajhaparamita-sastra. Comparatively speaking, the Buddha’s biographies in the Sarvastivadin and Theravadin traditions, although they narrate the greatness of the Buddha, do not evoke the Mahayana spirit. The Sarvastivadins maintain that the fulfilment of the four
384 Here, we refer to the biographical texts o f Sakyamuni Buddha, which are listed above, e.g. Abhini.
paramitas is conducive to achieving buddhahood, 385 whilst the Theravadins hold that fulfilment of the ten paramitas leads to buddhahood. The paramitas, though different in number, are accepted by all Buddhist sects as the course for the achievement of buddhahood.
The Fd-ben-qi-yin-yi'iair187, the Buddha’s biography, was composed on the basis of the Vinayapitaka, with some events extrapolated from other sources. The Satparamitasaingraha siitra and the Fo-ben-qi {Buddha vadana)v/ere the intermediaries in the development of Mahayana teachings from conservative Buddhism. They were composed by the early Buddhists but contain new elements. In the Fo-ben-qi Sakyamuni says that in the past, Dlpamkara Buddha predicted that he would become the Buddha Sakyamuni. Excepting the Si-fen-lu (Caturvarga-vinaya/ Dharmagupta-vinaya, this account is not narrated in the Vinayapitakas of other Buddhist sects. Although the Sarvastivada tradition preserved the same account, it was not included in the Sarvastivadin Tripitaka. Therefore, the Abhidharmamahavibhasa-sastra says,
"How is the DTpamkaretivrttaka to be regarded? . . . The answer: ‘It is not necessary to regard it [as either true or false].’ Why? It is not taught in the Sutra\pitaka], the Vinaya[pitaka]or the Abhidharma\pitaka\. It is only a legend. The narration o f eveiy legend may be approvable or not approvable."388
The prediction given by Dlpamkara was regarded as a legend. The only reason given for this assertion is that the prediction is not found in the Sarvastivadin Tripitaka. Yet while the prediction voiced by Dlpamkara Buddha was not included in the biographical texts of the Sarvastivadins, for example the Mahasammata-raja-siitra289and the Lalitavistara-sutra,390 in the texts of the Mahasamghikas and the Vibhajjavadins, it is central to the biography of Sakyamuni Buddha. This prediction shows that when he was a bodhisattva, he had completed many practices in many kalpas. Furthermore, it also indicates that it was only after the prediction of the Dlpamkara Buddha was confirmed that the bodhisattva obtained the anutpattikadhannaksanti and that,
385 T27: p.892a.
386 Pali Tipittaka, Vol.28, p.98-100.
387Buddha-avadana-nidana or Buddhapurvavadana henceforth Fo-ben-ql Fo-ben-qi is the biographical texts o f Sakyamuni Buddha we referred above.
388 T27:0916b; “W W , f f S M * ? . . . f t W i B S , f f i i m W
I M K m
389 Mahiisammala-raja-sutra T3:0932, No.0191.
390 L ilita,T 03,N o.l86
"The bodhisattva, for the benefit o f sentient beings, wishes to be born in the evil realms, and is able to proceed according to his wish."391
This teaching perhaps served as the theoretical source for the Mahayana assertions about the mahabodhisattva’s display of supernormal powers and his efforts to help sentient beings in all realms. Another bodhisattva practice found in early Mahayana texts is dharani. However, the Mahaprajhaparamita-sastia says,
"Why does the name dharani not exist in the sravakadharma, and only exist in the Mahayana (dharmafl1,392
From this question, it would appear that there are no dharanis in the sravakatripitaka, and that the dharanis were the unique dhannas of the bodhisattvas. However, the Mahaprajhaparamita- sastra says, “The teaching of the Abhidharma has the meaning of dharaniT393 Furthermore, the Abhidharmic method of analysis is used to analyse the dharanis. In fact, the dharanis are mentioned in the Abhiniskramana-sutri94 of the Dharmagupta tradition. New elements were in all probability added to the biographies of the Buddha, especially in the Mahasamghika and the Vibhajyavadin schools. In that capacity, they were conducive to the development of Mahayana Buddhism and the bodhisattvadhaimas.
E. An assessment of the bodhisattva concept in early Mahayana texts
According to the above findings, the main proto-Mahayana texts are the Satparamitasamgraha-sutra, which attached importance to compassion, the Sarvakarajnamaha- sutra, which attached importance to prajha\ or more accurately to the early conception of prajha, and the Triskandhaka-sutra, which attached importance to faith (sraddha) expressed in the context of disclosing faults (papadesanaparyaya) by worshipping the Buddhas of the ten directions. It is important to note that each of these texts contains a particular focus. It is therefore problematic to assert that the appearance of particular concepts may be used to date early Mahayana texts.. The distinct sequence of ideas in which the concept of the bodhisattva progressed, must be presented accurately in order to properly understand the patterns that evolved in the development of the bodhisattva concept. It is for this reason that the scholarly literature thus far only draws rather unsatisfactory conclusions. A great variety of concepts were taught in a great number of texts in order to serve a specific doctrinal aim.. And by
391 T49:ooi5c, m & m ,
392 T25:0269b.
393 T25:0095c. K S IJ lS S J U ji”.
394 Abhini, T3:0655ff; No.0190.
consequence new concepts of the bodhisattva emerged. In the first century BCE, these new concepts were clearly emerging alongside those of a more conservative form of Buddhism, many of which proved to be the foundation of the Mahayana tradition.
The earliest Mahayana texts clearly demonstrate an acceptance of six paramitas. They emphasise compassion and giving. A particularly important feature is the inclusion of dhyana in the six paramitas. This is not the first time that we see six paramitas, but the inclusion of dhyana in the Satparamitasamgraha-sutra is remarkable. Equally important is the exploration of prajha. Prajha here cannot be equated with the prajha of later Mahayana teachings, but it is certainly associated with the realisation of impermanence and is undoubtedly considered as important. The later literature of the prajhaparamita developed from this essential conception of prajha.
Subsequent discussions of prajha are found in the Ddo-zhi-da-jing,; which demonstrates the importance of prajha for bodhisattva practice. Particularly interesting in this text is the understanding of the word dao (iE). As we have seen, this term is best understood in the earliest Mahayana texts as meaning bodhi or sarvakarajhana, enlightenment or omniscience, respectively. It was shown that in Lokaksema’s translations dao signifies sarvakarajhana.
Lokaksema’s translations also demonstrate that dao is a goal of bodhisattva practice. One of the aspects of dao is the achievement of bodhisattvacitta, which refers to the bodhisattvas’
compassion toward all sentient beings, or non-attachment and non-thought of self.
In the Triskandha-suti'a we see that faith (sraddha) in the Buddha is presented as a means to remove evil karma. We also see that faith in the Buddhas of the ten directions in the present time is central to solving the problem of the absence of Buddhas in this world. The practice of disclosing faults is also comiected to the Buddhas of the ten directions. The theory of karma shifts emphasis from the will of oneself as the tool that achieves freedom from karma, to an emphasis upon directly requesting the Buddhas. Will remains important but is used in terms of making a petition. .
The development of bodhisattva practice expanded beyond the six paramitas to include the disclosure of faults, rejoicing in the merits of others, and asking the Buddhas to turn the wheel of Dharma. It seems that prior to this text, two skandhas were considered to be important practices for bodhisattvas. In the Triskandha-sutra, we see the inception of a threefold skandha practice.
These earliest Mahayana texts represent the process of tabulating bodhisattva practices for the goal of enlightenment. This is particularly evident in the Buddhavadananidanas, which display new features associated with the bodhisattva path. Of particular importance is the emphasis on non-grasping, which is shown to be a significant aspect of the path to enlightenment. Similarly, we find specific references to mastering spells (dharanis) and achieving the irreversible stage (avaivartakabhumi). Interestingly enough, in contrast to the fact that irreversibility in the bhumis meant safety from regression, in this context it refers to safety from falling into practices of the lesser vehicle. The bodhisattva is shown as skilful in means in order to achieve the anupattikadharmaksanti.
The Bodhisattvapitaka presents not only new concepts but also a new genre of bodhisattva treatises. The notable characteristic of all versions of this text is the attempt to re
catalogue bodhisattva practices. In the text’s earlier stages, we see the six paramitas and bhumis explained in greater detail. Although definitions of the title vary, reference to the Bodhisattvapitaka is found in the oldest texts of various schools of Buddhism. For example, in its early history, Bodhisattvapitaka is a general name given to Mahayana texts. Morality (slla), ascetic practice (dhutanga), patience (ksanti), energy (vTrya), wisdom {prajha), the concept of sarvadharmasunyata, the importance of great learning (bahusrutya), and the search for dharmas are emphasised in the Bodhisattvapitaka as important aspects of bodhisattva practice.
This topic is discussed in greater length in the following chapters.
Chapter Four: The Bodhisattva Doctrine In The Early
Prajnapaiamitasutras
It has been said that the bodhisattva’s practice became increasingly focused upon prajha. This is evident from our examination of the relevant texts of conservative Buddhism and of the proto-Mahayana. Establishing the chronological development of prajnd in the prajndpdramitd sources preserved in Chinese will help us to understand its place in bodhisattva practice. The prajhaparamita occupies the predominant position among the practices of the bodhisattva on the path to enlightenment (bodhimarga). This is why the prajhaparamita is discussed in virtually all Mahayana texts, and a special name was used for the texts that were compiled with the focus on the prajhaparamita'. the Prajhaparamita-sutras. These texts later became a major scriptural category in the Mahayana: the Prajhaparamita class. In order to discuss the doctrine of the bodhisattva in the initial stage of Mahayana teachings of the prajhaparamita\ it is important to understand the formation and development of the Prajhaparamita-sutras. This is accomplished by an analysis of Prajhaparamita-sutras preserved in Chinese translation as the most useful sources.
A. Translation data and the date
In the progression o f Buddhist thought, the numbers of Prajhaparamita-sutras continuously increased from two to three, four, eight, and sixteen by the time of Xuanzang in the seventh century CE. The earliest translation of the Prajhaparamita-sutia is the Dd o-xing-pan-iu o-po-luo-mi-jing ( M l translated by Lokaksema in 179 CE. By the time of the fifth year of the Gan-lu (if® , 260 CE), during the Northern Wei Dynasty, the Chinese knew of two Prajhaparamita-sutras. The biography of Zhu Shixfng (^ d r^ T )396 says,
"When Zhu Shixfng was expounding the M inor Version \ o f the Prajnaparamita-sutra] (Asm)>
he frequently failed to understand [some parts o f the text]. He realised that the text was the essence o f the Mahayana teachings, but felt that the structure o f the text was not fully translated into Chinese. He took an oath to sacrifice his life to travel to a distant place and receive the Large Version (dvnh) . . . Hence in Khotan ( T lh))> he made a copy o f a correct version o f the Sanskrit text. This had ninety chapters and sixty-hundred-thousand lines. He sent his disciple Puradharma back to Luo-yang (jfaWi) with the Sanskrit te x t. . . Zhu Shulan a He-nan upasaka who knew the dialect well, translated the text into Chinese
395 T8:0425ff; No.224; The Dcio-xing-pan-mo-po-luo-imjing 10 fascicles; 30 chapters) may be rendered as Sarvakarajnacaryaprajnaparamita suti'a if we take the word Dcio to signify sarvakarajna as we have in Chapter 3.
396 T55:0097ab. See 13 « ^ ± f r f $ »
-and named it the Prajnaparamita-sutra Emitting Light It has twenty fasciculi."397
The Minor Version expounded by Zhu Shixfng (^ d rlf) was the Deio-xing-pan-iuo-po-iiio-mi- jing. After Zhu Shulan translated the Prajnaparamita-sutra Emitting Light
in 295 CE, Chinese Buddhists comparatively called it the Large Prajnaparamita-sutra or the Large Version (Am). Since then, the Minor Version (Ann) and the Large Version (Ann) have been used as the names for the first two versions of the Prajiiaparamita-suti'as translated into Chinese.
Later, the Mahaprajnaparamita-sutra in twenty-seven (or twenty four) fascicles as translated by Kumarajlva, was called the New Large Version ( ITr A nn ), and the Prajnaparamita-sutra in ten fascicles was called the New Minor Version (frAmi).398 In fact, the Large Version and the Minor Version are the expanded and abridged versions of the
Later, the Mahaprajnaparamita-sutra in twenty-seven (or twenty four) fascicles as translated by Kumarajlva, was called the New Large Version ( ITr A nn ), and the Prajnaparamita-sutra in ten fascicles was called the New Minor Version (frAmi).398 In fact, the Large Version and the Minor Version are the expanded and abridged versions of the