The single parent is defined as an individual, who cares for children without the assistance of another adult in the home (National Alliance for care-giving, U.S. Department of Health and Human services 2009:5). During a parent’s incarceration, care-givers assume fundamental roles that could impact on domestic processes in various ways, and may profoundly shape, not only children’s experiences with parental imprisonment, but also children’s relationships with their parents (Hairston, 1999; Johnson & Waldfogel, 2004; Travis & Waul, 2003; all cited in Turanovic, Rodriquez & Pratt, 2012: 915). According to Parke (2003: 2), single- parent families are much more common today than they were 40 years ago. Christian (2009: 1), found that, in 2007, slightly more than 1.7 million children under the age 18 had a parent in state or federal prison, representing 2.3 per cent of the total USA child population. Most prisoners had at least one child under age 18 (52 per cent of state inmates and 63 per cent of federal inmates). Christian (2009: 2) quotes the 2008 Bureau of Justice Statistics report as stating that approximately one-half of state prisoners (64 per cent of mothers and 47 per cent of fathers) lived with, at least, one of their children, either in the month before, or just prior to imprisonment. He shows that seventeen per cent (17%) of fathers lived in a single-parent household and 18 per cent lived in a two-parent household (Christian, 2009: 3).
More women are faced with single motherhood and forced into female headed homes. Mothers are exposed to two parent roles, placing extensive pressure on a single mother to survive with only one source of income. The impact of paternal incarceration on families is clear, as it has been discussed and explored from a wide lens. The absence of a father, not only disturbs strong and secure bonds, but interrupts family structures, promotes negative behavioural patterns in children, leads to delinquent conduct and relationship challenges.
Christian (2009: 3) indicates that because many more men than women are imprisoned, the number of single-parent female households is almost five times higher than that of single parent male households. Family situations often change, which makes understanding the effects of family structure on children complicated (Christian, 2009: 3). Incarceration of large numbers of parents and spouses increases family disruptions: strong associations exist between imprisonment, divorce and separation (Huebner, 2005; Western, Lopoo & McLanahan, 2004; but see Lopoo & Western, 2005; all cited in Turanovic, Rodriquez & Pratt, 2012: 916) and the likelihood of marital success is diminished when monetary and
emotional strains are placed on the remaining partners (Geller, Garfinkel & Western, 2011; Huebner, 2007; both cited in Turanovic, Rodriquez & Pratt, 2012: 917).
McLanahan & Sandefur (1994, cited in Williams, 2001: 1) argue that children, who grow up in a household with a single parent, are not as developed as children, who grow up with both their biological parents. Hernandez (1993, cited in Cabrera et al., 2000: 128), however, submits that the proportion of two-parent families, in which fathers serve as the sole breadwinner, has declined and only about one-quarter of children live in such families today. Brown (2010, cited in Berger & McLanahan, 2012: 1) indicates that ‘both marital status and biological parentage are integral to children’s well-being’. He further states, specifically, that children, who live in social-father, co-habiting parent families, exhibit poorer developmental outcomes, on average, than those, who live with married biological parents (Artis, 2007; Brown, 2004, 2006; Hofferth, 2006; Manning & Lamb, 2003; all cited in Berger & McLanahan, 2012: 1). According to Schmeekle, Giarrusso, Feng and Bengtson (2006, cited in Berger & McLanahan, 2012: 3), social fathers, who enter a family earlier in a child’s life, are more likely to be perceived by children as ‘family’, than those who enter later; thus we might expect the benefits of social father investments that begin earlier in life to be greater than the benefits of investments that begin later in childhood.
3.9. Conclusion
The main focus of this chapter was to compare and contrast the main threads in the literature, relevant to fatherhood, absent fathers and the effects on their families. These were used as a lens to show the concepts of parenthood, fatherhood, fathering, present and absent fathers, as well as, the linkage to incarceration and how it impacts families. Men and their masculine identities reveal the struggle fathers have to fulfill their role. Connell showed that, although masculinity is demanded of all men, the majority of men are unable, and some unwilling, to achieve the idealized societal version of masculinity.
This chapter also provided statistics and information on overcrowding in Correctional Centers. Muntingh stated that prisons should be a deterrent to crime; however, within communities, where the crime rate is high, imprisonment has become an expected way of life. Judge Vuka Eliakim Maswazi Tshabalala, of the Judicial Inspectorate for Correctional Services, after monthly gathering of statistics within Correctional facilities, established that
the inmate population in South Africa has been exposed as one of the highest in the world. USA studies also revealed that prisons were on the increase and there was a rise in the male population, as well as, more frequent re-entry of offenders back into Correctional facilities. Increased male incarceration, therefore, increases father absenteeism and negatively impacts family units, which leads to more single female households.
The experiences of partners and adolescent children were also explored and how the incarceration of fathers placed limitations on all households. Geller predicts that more children will progressively be without a parent, as incarceration rises in the future, being relatively more detrimental to family life.
Responsive parenting was considered an important style of parenting, when exploring the role of a parent, as a responsive parent automatically advances positive child development. The parent’s main role is to prepare a child for adulthood through rules and discipline, as well as, shape their behaviours and choices, throughout adolescence, as they face the challenges of growing up.
The literature highlighted that the involvement of a father was important for the development and welfare of a child. It also showed that low father involvement and a decrease in closeness during adolescence led to delinquency in adult life. It was further evident, according to the literature, that a father’s involvement in children’s lives had a positive effect on them and promoted their well-being in many areas of development. On the contrary, an absent father triggered adverse consequences and lifelong damage. The following chapter will focus on the research methodology and the research process that aligns to the main outcome.