Estadística descriptiva:

Prah (2003:16) describes the language or medium of instruction as the language in which basic skills and knowledge are imparted to learners. He goes on to say that where the medium of instruction is the same as the mother tongue, it affirms the developmental capacity as a language of culture, science and technology. It also gives confidence to people as a symbol of their history and culture as echoed by Gxilishe (1996) and Gfeller

& Robinson (1998). People become more creative and innovative in their own mother tongues (Prah, 2003:16).

It is generally accepted and has been proven empirically that the mother tongue has psychological and socio-cultural benefits for the child as it enhances continuity in the child’s learning process (Bamgbose, 2005; Chumbow, 1990; Hameso, 1997; Elugbe, 1990; Duquette, 1995; Skutnabb-Kangas, 1999; Mazrui, 2002). For example, Chumbow (1990:63) emphasizes the psychological and socio-cultural importance of the child’s mother tongue. He links the child’s mother tongue to conceptualization and thinking. In other words, the child learns better and develops faster cognitively if s/he receives education in his/her mother tongue. Likewise, the child is socialized in his cultural environment through his mother tongue. That is, it is through the mother tongue that the child is able to express his ideas and feelings clearly and meaningfully.

The psychological benefit of mother tongue education is that it moulds the child’s early concepts, i.e. it is the means by which the child conceptualizes and thinks. In other words, it is needed for the cognitive development of the child (Chumbow 1990:63; Skutnabb-Kangas, 1999:58). As the mother tongue is usually transmitted from parents to the child, it corresponds with the life experiences of the child and it enhances continuity in the child’s learning process and encourages the child’s intellectual development. Duquette (1995:38) is of the view that mother tongue education is meaningful and relevant to the child, and it also facilitates the transfer of first language skills to the outside environment. Hence it is associated with better educational achievement (Bunyi, 1997:54; Hameso, 1997:6).

In the first chapter, the Six Year Primary Project (SYPP) was mentioned briefly. The SYPP which was conducted in Nigeria in the 1970s was an effort to implement mother tongue education. In this project, Yoruba was used as the medium of instruction for the first six years of schooling. The secondary aims of this project were to enrich the curriculum and to develop materials in Yoruba. The teaching of English was also improved by hiring English specialist teachers to serve as good models for the experimental class. “With exposure to a good model of English, it was expected that there

would be considerable improvement in the pupils’ mastery of English language” (Bamgbose, 2005:243). The results of this project showed that children who were taught through the medium of Yoruba outperformed their counterparts (in Yoruba, English and Mathematics) who were taught through the medium of English (Bamgbose, 2005; Bunyi, 1997:53). It is interesting to note that the learners who were taught in Yoruba did very well also in English. Thus it can be concluded that the learner’s mother tongue is not only beneficial in understanding academic concepts better, but it is also a good foundation for second language learning. Thus Bamgbose (2005: 245) says:

The outcomes from the SYPP provide strong support for the use of a child’s mother tongue for learning and teaching in the primary school. Because this first language is already familiar, learning to read and write in it is easier, and information and understanding of concepts in the mother tongue also facilitate the learning process.

Nevertheless, mother tongue education among African communities is still a very sensitive issue that is not very easy to address. Many African people, especially in South Africa, associate it with inferior education that was enforced by the apartheid government. Since African people were denied access to certain privileges that were enjoyed by whites only, (speakers of English and Afrikaans), they began to believe that the only way to climb the socio-economic ladder was through English. So many parents believe that if their children are taught in English, they will be in a better position to get the better jobs now enjoyed by whites. They seem not to be aware of the psychological and cognitive benefits of mother tongue education.

Hameso (1997) stresses the importance of indigenous languages in education thus:

Indigenous languages reflect learners’ backgrounds or address their needs while positively influencing their educational achievement…They are relevant, practical and necessary for the revival of Africa’s institutions… (Hameso, 1997:12).

However, the reality is that almost all the colonized countries in Africa still use the language of their former colonizers. As most of these countries were colonized by either British or French colonials, English and French are still widely used as languages of

teaching and learning in many African countries. Some of the colonized countries have made efforts to reverse the situation by recognizing their indigenous languages in education. Tanzania, Nigeria and Ethiopia are some of the countries that have attempted to use their indigenous languages in education (Bamgbose, 2005).

About 95 – 99% of the Tanzanian population speaks Kiswahili which is a national language. Kiswahili is used as a medium of instruction in primary schools (seven years) and English is taught as a subject. In secondary schools and universities English is used as the medium of instruction. Brock-Utne (2005:51) mentions that Kiswahili is used as a medium of instruction in the Kiswahili Department and the Institute for Kiswahili at the University of Dar es Salaam, and meetings are held in Kiswahili. This is an indication that Kiswahili is not only a unifying national language, but it is used in formal domains at the highest academic levels such as education and research.

Although Tanzania has been among the first African countries to implement mother tongue education, the government objects to the extension of the use of Kiswahili as the medium of instruction beyond primary schooling. The main claim of the objection is that English is a language of research and international communication (NEPI, 1992:53). But my visit to a private primary school in Tanzania (in 2004) where the medium of instruction is English left me with many unanswered questions. Although the school is offering tuition in English, the teachers and learners use textbooks written in Kiswahili. Is English the medium of instruction in reality? Why and how do they use the Kiswahili textbooks in teaching English texts?

Ethiopia, like Tanzania uses an indigenous language, Amharic as a medium of instruction in primary education. The main aim of mother tongue education in this country is to provide access to primary education, and to develop all people in order to eliminate poverty (Boothe & Walker, 1997:2). As a starting point, existing primary school (Grades 1 – 6) textbooks and teachers’ guides were translated into nine national languages of Ethiopia, including Amharic. This work was done in 1992 with the help of teachers, communities, donors and non-govermental organizations (NGOs). This initiative

developed positive attitudes of parents, teachers and students towards the use of the mother tongue in education (Boothe & Walker, 1997:13).

In support of mother tongue-based bilingual education in the Western Cape, Alexander (2005:9) suggests that a market value should be created in isiXhosa, which is the marginalized and less developed language in terms of material resources in the Western Cape. In this way, isiXhosa as a medium of instruction will be taken seriously by schools. He also suggests that the translation of existing textbooks into isiXhosa will make a difference, and publishers should be guaranteed of a market to sell these books.

Based on Bamgbose’s (2005:249 - 254) observation and experience of mother tongue education in Nigeria, (i.e. the SYPP), the following summary can be drawn:

1) Primary education is more meaningful when conducted in the child’s first language.

2) Mother tongue education does not preclude effective education in more than one language.

3) Language education may entail curriculum reform.

4) Terminology need not be an obstacle to mother tongue education.

5) Co-operative effort is required for materials development and terminology creation.

6) Mother-tongue education will lead to a reduction of educational failure.

7) Teaching and research at university level may provide the impetus for improvements in mother-tongue medium education.

The above summary provides a guide that other African countries can explore if they want to implement mother tongue education in African languages. For instance, points 4,

5 and 7 were taken into account as indicated in the previous chapter10. In the following section I look at foreign language instruction policy as opposed to mother tongue education policy.