ESTADÍSTICAS DE RIESGO Y RELACIÓN COMERCIAL

Metacognitive comments related to awareness of practice strategies and progression throughout the memorisation process. As such, the comments deal in more general terms:

“I was testing memory of small passages at an early stage.” (1:VR2).

“I began with a recap to test memory.” (1:VR3).

“The trial performance showed memory was largely intact, with

some minor hesitations. Although the score was not used, hesitations often occurred at page turns. Perhaps my use visual memory is failing here.” (2:VR6).

“There were some hesitations in runs of sections.” (3:VR9).

“The playing feels overly reliant on muscle memory: there is a lack

of control as the fingers take over.” (4:VR11).

Comparison with regression analyses

Regression analyses and verbal comments provide different and independent sources of information regarding practice processes (Chaffin & Imreh, 2001). Comparison of the two reveals whether the pianist’s insights agreed with the behavioural record (Chaffin, et al., 2002; Chaffin, Lisboa, et al., 2009; Ginsborg & Chaffin, 2011a). The regression analyses demonstrate

significant effects for basic and structural dimensions in the initial practice stage, with interpretative and expressive issues addressed later in practice. The general trend is repeated in verbal comments (Fig. 2.11). As with previous studies, this pattern indicates that verbal comments are a reliable source in documenting what the pianist practised, and the effects of the regression analyses reveal what was dealt with in practice (Chaffin & Imreh, 2001).

Inconsistencies are also apparent in the two results. Interpretative comments were nonexistent in the first practice stage. However, there was a significant effect of this variable on starting locations. It is likely that more overt dynamics were intuitively practised during that stage, with verbal comments occurring later in the process. Another interesting discrepancy relates to

structural dimensions in practice stage 2. The regression analyses reveal significant effects for structural PCs on starts and repetitions. No verbal comments occurred in this practice stage. As the regression analyses confirm, practice of larger structural PCs occurred in the first practice stage, and as such, comments were not needed regarding this dimension. Structural comments in the third practice stage also clarify the negative coefficient for the effect of structural variable on starts: indicating that practice avoided starting on this variable. Comments confirm that practice jumped between phrases and sections to reinforce the progression of the cadenza.

A final inconsistency in the two analyses relates to basic comments in the final practice stage. These highlighted the need for more technical practice, yet there is no effect of basic dimensions on practice. This is harder to explain. It may be that practice of this dimension was not consistent enough to register an effect, or it may be that the concerns at the time were unwarranted.

Conclusions

The findings in this chapter largely correspond to existing longitudinal studies on PC theory. Similar practice stages were identified (Chaffin, et al., 2002; Chaffin, Lisboa, et al., 2009; Wicinski, reported in Miklaszewski, 1989). Musicians use the formal structure of the work to organise practice (Chaffin et al., 2002; Chaffin, Imreh, et al., 2003; Chaffin, Lisboa, et al., 2009; Chaffin & Logan, 2006; Ginsborg & Sloboda, 2007; Ginsborg & Chaffin, 2011a; Noice, et al., 2008). This study confirms the theory and extends the literature to examine the memorisation procedure for atonal music by a pianist. As no prior analysis was undertaken, the musician was not fully aware of the formal structure. Instead, first-person accounts demonstrate that the cadenza was segmented by intuitive awareness of changes in motif, tempo and various musical dimensions. This division was closely aligned with the formal structure and suggests that the pianist used a wider musical knowledge to ascertain an unfamiliar structure to organise practice.

Whilst more research is needed to establish whether the use of the structure as a hierarchical retrieval scheme is prevalent across atonal music, it is likely that experienced musicians are able to analyse detailed musical features at

the instrument to understand more complex structures.21 The importance of structure in organising practice is confirmed by the more objective analysis of video-recordings. First, the total number of starts across all sessions reveals greater tallies on structural boundaries and beginnings of phrases (Fig. 2.9). Secondly, the regression analyses indicate significant effects of structural

boundaries and structural PCs on practice: structure was used to organise practice and also became content-addressable locations (Chaffin, Logan, & Begosh, 2009).

The focus of practice also changed across the sessions. Basic dimensions were prevalent in earlier sessions, but became automatic and attention was no longer required in the final sessions. There was an increased focus on

interpretative and expressive dimensions as the learning progressed, following previous trends in other musicians (Chaffin, et al., 2002). Different types of PCs were established and practised at different points during the process. In this study, it is likely that a combination of PCs and serial chaining was used. There is strong evidence for the use of PCs: however, the relatively condensed learning period, coupled with technical concerns in the final sessions may suggest that serial chaining was also present in memory procedure. Although the performance was a success and the technical concerns were unwarranted, it is likely that more time for over-learning may have improved comfort (Driskel, Willis, & Copper, 1992).

Did undertaking the case study affect the learning process? Whilst minor changes in practice inevitably occurred, including increased verbalisations during practice, and completing annotated scores at various stages, it is unlikely that this had much effect. My preoccupation was always to ensure that the score was memorised and the performance would be to the highest level possible. Practical concerns, along with the influence of existing literature were forgotten in the practice room: the focus was solely on the playing. As such, the data collected concurrently can be seen as extensions of this process.

The limitations of combining the practitioner-analyst roles are harder to unpick. Over-reliance on self-reports is dangerous and prone to confusion and erroneous conclusions (Chalmers, 1990; 1996; Dennett, 1991; Nisbett & Wilson,

21

1977). The strict segregation of the roles of practitioner and researcher aimed to reduce any expectations I had on the outcome of the study. As with previous studies, the objective behavioural record of the video-recorded sessions was used to verify first-person accounts. The statistical model was based on existing research (Chaffin et al., 2002; Chaffin, Lisboa, et al., 2009). Given the high number of zero values for particular variables, some caution is necessary when interpreting the results.

More recent research has used mixed models for regression analysis (Ginsborg & Chaffin, 2011; Lisboa, et al., 2015). Given that the author’s training is in performance and traditional musicology, such complex models are beyond the scope of this research. Whilst further review and future research would benefit from the expertise of a cognitive psychologist, it is likely that the outcomes of this descriptive study – with comparison to existing literature – provide enough detail regarding general practice trends for the purpose of this study, and extends the body of literature to a pianist’s interaction with atonal music.

The following chapter continues analysis of Oiseaux Exotiques from a different approach, in the form of a detailed analysis of memory strategy at the keyboard. The chapter addresses how atonal music can be memorised. This examines what occurs when the usual patterns in a musician’s knowledge (scales, arpeggios and harmony) cannot be used. As such patterns form a

fundamental part of expert memory theories (Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995), how are they replaced in atonal music? In many ways, this is similar to traditional

analysis. However, instead of analysing dimensions that are compositionally significant to the structure and motif of the work, the focus examines any significant dimensions for memory procedure. Hence, a much wider variety of features can be classed as significant, ranging from more typical dimensions (motivic features, rhythm and structure) to the more inventive methods required to memorise atonal music (hand shapes, visualisations, body movements and verbalisations). This analysis in particular contributes new, alternative narratives to research on musical memory theory, by examining on a detailed level they manner in which a musician (myself) commits the actual stimuli to long-term memory.

CHAPTER 3

Memorising Messiaen

Methods of Memorisation

The focus of the thesis in the following two chapters examines strategies for encoding musical features during practice. Whilst musical examples of PCs have been reported in previous research (Chaffin, et al., 2002; Chaffin, Lisboa, et al., 2009; Ginsborg & Chaffin, 2011a), more detailed analysis of encoding at various stages of practice has been under researched. This is most likely for two reasons: first, it is generally assumed that musicians form individual strategies for memorisation (Hallam, 1995a; 1995b; 1997a). Secondly, given the

fundamental role of harmonic schemas in learning, such analysis for tonal music may be of less interest to musicologists. The theory of skilled memory proposes that an essential part of the extended memorisation technique is a specialist’s knowledge of a particular domain in order to deduce patterns (Chase and Ericsson, 1981; Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995). Halpern and Bower (1982) have established the importance of formal training that instils scales, arpeggios and chords as immediately recognisable schemas in the musician’s vocabulary (p.42). Previous studies in musical memory have relied on this principle.

Yet, in music such as Messiaen’s Oiseaux Exotiques, this feature is severely diminished, if not entirely removed. Harmonies may indeed be

memorable and evocative as individual objects, but if there is no pattern to relate to, can a performer memorise the music without the need actively to think about every note during performance? Williamon (1999) has commented on the difficulties of memorising atonal music and the problems it may pose leading cognitive overload. Similarly, problems arise for auditory memory, as elucidated by Crawford: