ESTANDAR ISO/IEC 14443

Initially, I had three categories for the possible mode of introduction – deliberate, accidental or both. I classified as “accidental” those wild NIPS that are assumed to have arrived accidentally and for which I found no record of them ever having been deliberately cultivated, for example seed contaminants, or those arriving with merchandise or ballast, and also species that are classified as possible seed

contaminants by Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) taxonomy for plants database (http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/index.pl). GRIN has information on almost 80 000 species and infra-species of economic importance and is maintained by the United States National Plant Germplasm System of the Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture and the Integrated

Taxonomic Information System. I classified any wild NIPS that has been cultivated in New Zealand at any time as “deliberate”, and any that also arrived accidentally were classified as “both”. Datura ferox is classified as “accidental” even though it was imported as bird seed because it was never deliberately cultivated (Healy, 1969; Webb et al., 1995).

For the deliberate introductions, I also placed each wild NIPS into two broad use categories. Previous authors (e.g. Buddenhagen et al., 1998) have emphasised that the majority of wild NIPS were horticultural introductions, therefore I felt it important to divide this category of deliberate introductions to reflect the density and spread of purposeful plantings. The categories I used were ornamental and utilitarian.

Ornamental NIPS were defined as those that are, or have been, used for ornamental or amenity plantings, particularly in home gardens and urban parks, and include

aquarium and lawn species. Ornamental NIPS have no other uses. Utilitarian NIPS were defined as those that are, or have been, used for ecosystem services in the rural landscape, for commercial crops, for agriculture or for forestry. Examples of uses of NIPS for ecosystem services include shelter belts (Populus yunnanensis), rural hedges,

28 wood lots, land stabilisation (Salix spp.), sand binding (Lupinus arboreus), and shade. Commercial crops include, for example, woody fruit crops (e.g., Vitis vinifera, Prunus persica), or bee fodder. Agricultural NIPS include any herbaceous species that are, or have been, commercially grown for pastures or crops in the rural landscape (e.g., Lolium perenne), including green manure, vegetables etc. Forestry NIPS are those tree species that are, or have been, used for commercial timber production, such as Pinus radiata.

From this information, for the analyses I created five categories that combined the possible mode of introduction with distribution –“No use” for the wild NIPS that were only accidentally introduced and/or distributed, “Ornamental (A)” for the wild NIPS that were deliberately introduced and distributed as an ornamental NIPS but were also accidentally introduced and/or distributed, “Ornamental (D)” for the wild NIPS that were only deliberately introduced and distributed for ornamental purposes, “Utilitarian (A)” for the wild NIPS that were deliberately introduced and distributed for utilitarian purposes but were also introduced and/or distributed accidentally and “Utilitarian (D)” for the wild NIPS that were only deliberately introduced and distributed for utilitarian purposes (Appendix 7.2).

I obtained direct references on the mode of introduction and distribution for many of the NIPS (Adams, 1915; Cheeseman, 1900; Cockayne, 1916; Colenso, 1885; Curl, 1876, 1878, 1879; Esler, 1987a, b; Guthrie-Smith, 1907; Healy, 1969; Healy & Edgar, 1980; Kirk, 1895; Ludlam, 1868; Mason, 1896, 1902; Webb et al., 1988). If I could not do this and a NIPS was listed as cultivated in any New Zealand gardening

reference that I consulted, such as “Gaddum’s plant finder” (Gaddum, 1999), New Zealand gardening books (e.g. Bryant, 1995; Griffiths, 1994; Macoboy et al., 1991; Sheat & Schofield, 1995) or New Zealand nursery catalogues (e.g. Arthur Yates & Co., 1929, 1943; Arthur Yates & Co. Ltd., 1965; Duncan & Davies, 1927, 1952, 1963; Yates New Zealand, 1987, 1990), I assumed that it had been deliberately introduced and distributed for ornamental use. Peter Williams (Landcare Research) determined the mode of introduction and distribution for 237 of the wild NIPS for which I could not find references. For example, I had found information on two of the Austrostipa spp. and Peter Williams determined that the remaining seven wild Austrostipa spp. had been accidentally introduced and/or distributed. I also made judgements according to my personal knowledge of the current use of the wild NIPS. Finally, if there was still

29 no record anywhere and a NIPS was in the “The new Royal Horticultural Society dictionary: Index of garden plants” (Griffiths, 1994) I listed it in the ornamental horticultural category as a deliberate introduction and distribution. This left ten wild NIPS with an unknown mode of introduction and distribution – Briza uniolae, Bromus valdivianus, Centipeda cunninghamii, Cryptocarya obovata, Isolepis australiensis, Juncus platyphyllus, Paspalum vaginatum, Rubus echinatus, Sporobolus diandrus and Stellaria neglecta – so their introduction and distribution was classified as “None”. Because I have stopped at the species level, if there have been several subspecies I have combined the information. This may have led to inaccuracies in some cases. For example, the cultivated carrot and wild carrot are both Daucus carota, although the cultivated carrot is usually treated as subsp. sativus and the wild carrot as subsp. carota (Webb et al., 1988). If a garden book uses scientific names it is often only to the species level, for example Daucus carota in Sheat and Schofield (1995).

Of the 2252 wild NIPS in New Zealand by 2000, 54% were deliberately introduced and distributed, 31% were accidentally introduced and/or distributed and 15% were both deliberately and accidentally introduced and/or distributed. Overall, when the mode of introduction is classified as deliberate or accidental only, 69% were deliberately introduced and 46% were accidentally introduced. New Zealand has a lower percentage of accidentally introduced wild NIPS when compared with the Czech Republic where 57% of the wild NIPS were accidentally introduced. However, a higher percentage (16%) were both accidentally and deliberately introduced to New Zealand when compared with the Czech Republic, where only 7.4% were possibly introduced by both modes (Pyšek et al., 2002b).

The majority (77%) of the deliberately introduced wild NIPS were introduced for ornamental use, as in many other regions, including the British Isles (Crawley et al., 1997), the Czech Republic (Pyšek et al., 2003b), the Azores Archipelago (Silva & Smith, 2004) and Mediterranean islands (Lambdon & Hulme, 2006a).