ESTIMACIONES EN VALENCIA AFECTIVA Y AROUSAL

A considerable amount of research has focused on enhancing preservice teachers’ confidence in their ability in science (Avery & Meyer, 2012; Cantrell et al., 2003; Ford, Fifield, Madsen, & Qian, 2013; Knaggs & Sondergeld, 2015; Palmer, 2006a; Palmer et al., 2015; Ramey-Gassert & Shroyer, 1992; Savasci-Acikalin, 2014). A number of studies have examined the effect of science teaching methods courses on preservice teachers’ confidence in their ability in science and have found that these courses can be highly effective in this regard (Bleicher, 2007; Cantrell et al., 2003; Gunning & Mensah, 2011; Palmer, 2006a, 2006b; Utley, Moseley, & Bryant, 2005). Such courses are designed to provide preservice teachers with the pedagogical skills to teach science. Particular features of these courses have been recognised as having the potential to enhance teachers’ confidence in their ability in science. These include the intensive use of hands- on activities and group work (Bleicher & Lindgren, 2005; Butts et al., 1997; Palmer, 2006a), inquiry approaches (Jarrett, 1999; Sanger, 2008) and learning science content (Jarrett, 1999; Palmer, 2006a). Professional practice in teaching science during or immediately after science methods is also acknowledged as being among the factors that have the potential to enhance teachers’ confidence in their ability in science (Cantrell et al., 2003; Palmer, 2006a).

Palmer (2006a), for example, investigated the effect of a science methods course on primary teachers’ science teaching self-efficacy and the durability of these changes, using a survey and interviews. In addition to covering teaching techniques and strategies, some science content was embedded in this methods course. Throughout the course, hands-on

activities and group work were intensively utilised. The study involved a pre-test, immediate post-test and delayed post-test design. The results indicated that positive changes in preservice teachers’ science teaching self-efficacy occurred as a result of the course, and these high levels of self-efficacy were still present after the delay period (by measuring their science teaching self-efficacy at the beginning and end of a science methods course, and then after 9 months). The study also revealed that having an opportunity to teach science in primary school was an important factor in consolidating efficacy levels after the methods course.

Jarrett (1999) investigated the effect of an inquiry-based science methods course on interest and confidence of preservice teachers in teaching science. The course was designed to provide participants with science content and inquiry methods in such a way that made these preservice teachers feel confident, skilled and motivated to integrate inquiry science into their future classrooms. Using pre–post-surveys the study found that the inquiry-based science methods course increased both interest and confidence of preservice teachers.

Sanger (2008) compared views on how science is taught and learnt among primary teaching majors who had taken several inquiry-based science courses and secondary science teaching majors who had taken several traditional lecture-based courses. Based on written reflections from students in the two groups, the results showed that the use of inquiry-based methods can greatly affect teachers’ interest and confidence in teaching science as well as their views regarding how science is undertaken, and how it is taught and learnt.

Science content courses can also be a source for increasing primary teachers’ confidence in their ability in science; however, the effectiveness of these courses in improving confidence is uncertain (Palmer et al., 2015). Content courses are designed to give preservice teachers the CK to teach science. Studies have investigated the influence of science content courses, or interventions applied to these courses, on preservice teachers’ confidence in their ability in science (Baldwin, 2014; Bergman & Morphew, 2015; Menon & Sadler, 2016; Palmer et al., 2015). The results acknowledge the role of science content courses specifically designed for preservice primary teachers in increasing their confidence in their ability to learn and/or teach science (Baldwin, 2014; Bergman & Morphew, 2015; Knaggs & Sondergeld, 2015; McLoughlin & Dana, 1999; Palmer et al., 2015). As with methods courses, some factors relating to science content courses are recognised as having potential to enhance teachers’ confidence in their ability in science. These include the use of hands-on activities, group work, studying artefacts (Palmer et al., 2015), micro teaching (Knaggs & Sondergeld, 2015) and inquiry approaches (Avery & Meyer, 2012; Bergman & Morphew, 2015; Narayan & Lamp, 2010).

Palmer et al. (2015) investigated whether a tailored science content course would enhance primary teachers’ self-efficacy. The science content course consisted of content and techniques developed to be relevant to the students in primary teacher education, where a traditional format of lectures supported by interactive tutorials was utilised. The tutorials were highly interactive, as students participated in hands-on activities, group work and discussion, as well as studying artefacts. The STEBI-B was used and administered three times: as a pre-test during the first week of the science course, as an immediate post-test in the last week of the course, and as a delayed post-test, which was carried out 10 months after the end of the course. The study provided evidence that a tailored science content course using a traditional format of lectures supported by

interactive tutorials can increase science teaching self-efficacy and the increase was stable for at least a 10-month period (Palmer et al., 2015).

Knaggs and Sondergeld (2015) used Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy as a conceptual framework and examined a sample of preservice primary teachers engaged in a semester- long science content course, with purposefully embedded verbal persuasion, vicarious and simulated mastery experiences. The science content course was a specifically designed integrated course in which preservice teachers were introduced to science content as learners and provided with opportunities to share their new knowledge as a teacher by teaching science content to their peers or teaching it at a local science museum. The course included hands-on science experiences and interactive science field trip experiences components, which have been shown to increase preservice teachers’ science self-efficacy. Preservice teachers were simultaneously engaged in learning and teaching science content in either a real life or simulated experience. The STEBI-B and open-ended questions added to the survey to collect data. The study reported significant increases in preservice teachers’ science self-efficacy after participating in the science content course.

Likewise, Bergman and Morphew (2015) acknowledged the role of a science content course specifically designed for preservice primary teachers in increasing preservice teachers’ self-efficacy. They investigated the effect of a new science content course created and designed to educate preservice primary teachers about essential physical science concepts through a hands-on application setting. They also advocated modelling for these teachers the instructional strategies and activities necessary for promoting inquiry-based science learning in the classroom, on their confidence in ability in science. The study featured a pre and post-test design using the STEBI-B. By comparing preservice teachers’ self-efficacy in teaching science before and after the course, the study

found that after experiences and learning in this science content course, participants showed a significant increase in their self-efficacy in teaching science. Narayan and Lamp (2010) also found that involving preservice primary teachers in a constructivist, inquiry- based science class (inquiry-based pedagogical strategies) was a major factor in increasing their self-efficacy. Baldwin (2014) reported similar results when investigating the effect of an introductory geology laboratory course designed for preservice primary teachers, on their science teaching self-efficacy; the results indicated a significant increase in science teaching self-efficacy.

The combination of science content and science methods courses is acknowledged as being successful in enhancing primary teachers’ confidence in their ability in science. Ford et al. (2013), for example, explored the effect of a semester-long course that integrated three science content courses and a science methods course in the development of preservice teachers’ conceptions about inquiry, science teaching efficacy and reflections on learning through inquiry. The course was designed to provide inquiry- oriented and problem-based learning (PBL) experiences, opportunities to examine socially relevant issues through cross-disciplinary perspectives; it aligned with content found in primary curricula and standards. Data were collected using open-ended survey, the STEBI-B and focus group interviews. The study reported that by the end of the semester, preservice primary teachers moved from naïve to intermediate understandings of inquiry and had significantly increased self-efficacy for science for science teaching. Preservice teachers showed appreciation of the goals of the course and the PBL as a model of instruction appropriate for primary teaching.

In summary, it is clear from the literature review that different teaching and learning strategies have been suggested and implemented in a range of studies of both content and

methods courses, to enhance preservice teachers’ science CK and confidence in ability in science. Many of these strategies were implemented on small numbers of preservice teachers and tended to focus on improving their confidence in their ability in science, rather than on enhancing their science CK. In addition, most strategies were implemented during methods courses. Nonetheless, the literature shows that many primary teachers of science do not have an adequate understanding of the science content they are required to teach (McConnell et al., 2013), or have misconceptions about science concepts (Ahopelto et al., 2011; Bulunuz & Jarrett, 2010; Kikas, 2004; King, 2000; Parker & Heywood, 2000; Sarioglan & Küçüközer, 2014). It is necessary to offer new teaching and learning experiences for preservice primary teachers during teacher education programs that can improve their CK and confidence in ability in science. My perspective on these new experiences, based on the reviewed literature, is that they should be able to support the integration and implementation of constructivist approaches in teaching and learning, as these approaches have been shown to enhance science understanding and confidence, as discussed above.

Another argument that should be considered here—while thinking about new teaching and learning experiences to improve preservice primary teachers’ CK and confidence in science—is essentially that many students lack science knowledge because many ideas in science are abstract and complex, and experiences of these ideas may not always be available or may be difficult or even impossible to offer because of safety, time, cost or distance issues (Metcalf, Clarke, & Dede, 2009; Tarng, Ou, Tsai, Lin, & Hsu, 2009). However, students need to be able to visualise these ideas and concepts if they are going to genuinely understand them (Allison, 2017). This motivated the exploration of alternative, innovative instructional environments and approaches to enable experiences of these ideas in reliable contexts that can help present students with some aspects of real

life and make abstract scientific ideas tangible to them, thus improving their engagement (Huizenga, Admiraal, Akkerman, & Dam, 2009; Kamarainen, Metcalf, Grotzer, & Dede, 2015) and therefore their learning outcomes. Learner engagement is the keystone of effective teaching (Beasley, Gist, & Imbeau, 2014). It is included as one of the elements of a quality learning environment (New South Wales Department of Education, 2009) and is widely acknowledged as critical to the learning process (Reading, 2008). For example:

Students who actively engage with what they are studying tend to understand more, learn more, remember more, enjoy it more and be more able to appreciate the relevance of what they have learnt, than students who passively receive what we teach them. (Park, 2003, p. 183).

Thus, it is vital that new teaching and learning experiences offered for preservice teachers are able to encourage and enable them to engage in the learning process.

In the following section, the immersive and modelling environments used in the study are discussed in relation to the learning opportunities presented to the preservice teachers that participated in the intervention. The potential benefits of technology in the classroom are also discussed.