CAPÍTULO IV. LA CREATIVIDAD EN LA EDUCACIÓN
4.4 U NA VISIÓN DESDE LA PEDAGOGÍA
4.4.3 Estrategias de enseñanza aprendizaje
Kitschelt (1995) advanced the hypothesis that radical right parties are favored when the ideolog-‐ ical distance between mainstream parties is reduced, thus opening a space for the radical right. Carter (2005) tests various supply side explanations for the electoral success of what she calls right-‐wing ex-‐ tremists. With rigorous scientific precision she employs multiple regression analysis and shows that only a few variables matter. She finds that party organization and leadership matter for the electoral accom-‐ plishments of these parties but the most important factor that makes radical right/extremist parties successful is the ideological convergence between mainstream left and mainstream right parties. Van der Burg et al. (2005), who analyze electoral results of 25 radical parties in 22 elections, come up with the same conclusion that the ideological position of the mainstream competitor matters. They find that when the large mainstream party moves more to the right on the ideological spectrum this translates into less votes for the radical right party. Koopmans et al. (2005) find that strong discursive opportunity structure combined with ample political space leads to institutionalization (i.e. party formation), that weak discursive opportunities and restricted political space leads to marginalization and, finally, weak discursive opportunities combined with ample political space leads to populism (p.149). Meguid (2008) finds that institutions and traditional predictors such as immigrants, value orientation, and economic
prosperity do not explain the success of small niche parties.20 She argues that it is the mainstream par-‐
ties’ strategies that determine the success of these small parties, as they can shift their position and al-‐ ter the salience of the issues. Meguid uses the French political system to exemplify how large ideologi-‐ cal distance between radical right and moderate right solidifies the radical right party’s platform. She argues that mainstream parties’ adversarial policies towards the National Front especially on the issues of immigration solidified the radical right’s party ownership on the issue.
Downs (2012, 20) argues that “strategies of isolation, ostracism, and demonization prove sur-‐ prisingly ineffective at rolling back or even containing threats to the democratic order from party-‐based extremism.” Furthermore, he finds that attempts to quarantine radical parties pushed the mainstream parties in the position of looking for alternatives in order to preserve the democratic order. One alter-‐ native that was considered in the contemporary political system is the inclusion of these “pariah” parties in the government structures. Using examples from Austria, Switzerland and Denmark, Downs finds that “a consistent but surprising finding is that strategies of regulated inclusion, can remedy some of the un-‐ intended pathologies of ostracism, setting in motion dynamics that divide parties new to government and exposing them as ill-‐prepared to deal with the responsibilities of every day policy-‐making” (21).
Norris (2005) challenges these claims and finds that “there are grounds for skepticism surround-‐ ing the claim that the ideological positions of the mainstream parties provide automatic opportunities for radical-‐right parties” (196). Kitschelt’s claims are not supported by the reproduction of the analysis initiated by Norris. She states that “this evidence therefore fails to support the Kitschelt prediction that the radical right will flourish most successfully where the ideological gap between the main parties is smallest” (196).
Art (2007) also contradicts Kitschelt’s original findings and proves that radical right parties’ suc-‐ cess is dependent on the position of the mainstream parties and that they are more successful in coun-‐ tries where the coalition markets are more open towards collaboration. He finds that there is an “inter-‐ action” argument that weakens or consolidates newly formed radical movements. The interaction of the mainstream political parties, reactions of the print media and civil society are important factors in determining the far right’s trajectory (332). “Conversely, when mainstream political forces either coop-‐ erate with or are agnostic toward the far right, right-‐wing populist parties gain electoral strength, legiti-‐ macy and political entrepreneurs that can transform them into permanent forces in the party system” (332). Art uses two case studies, Austria and Germany, to support his argument that the two decades of growth and success for the Austrian radical right FPO and the two decades of stagnation and failure of the German REP21, are a result of deliberate choices made within the political system. What determines
the reactions of the political parties, the media and the civil society is the perception of legitimacy of the radical right parties in the mainstream politics. Art (2006) argues that these ideas of legitimacy are di-‐ rect products of the dramatically different ways in which Germany and Austria chose to confront their Nazi past. In Germany, the examination of the past produced a “culture of contrition” amongst all polit-‐ ical elites, and sensitivity to any political party that resembled the Nazis or tried to downplay the conno-‐ tation of the Nazi past. In Austria, amnesia about the Nazi period and a defensive attitude produced a “culture of victimization”. This attitude, coupled with a permissive position of political elites toward the radical right, paved the way for the far right in becoming a legitimate actor in the mainstream politics.
In contemporary Austrian politics the danger of radicalism is real and tangible. In Germany po-‐ litical elites, left and right, the media leaders, and the civil society decided to confront the Nazi past and marginalized the radical right parties. In Austria they did the opposite, some of them mainly the moder-‐
ate right did not do that and they decided to cooperate with the radical right and the result was that the radical right ended up in the government. Based on Kitschelt’s original argument the radical right par-‐ ties should have been more successful in Germany where the moderate right and the moderate left converged in the center refusing to cooperate with the radical right. In Austria, Kitschelt’s theory would argue that the radical right parties have no chance simply because the distance between moderate right and the moderate left increased, the moderate right moved toward the right in an attempt to capture some of the radical right votes.
Art’s theory is also supported by France. Today in France we have a situation more similar with Austria, rather than Germany. France used to be more similar to the German case when under Chirac the mainstream political forces employed a strategy of marginalization of the radical right. Once Sar-‐ kozy took power, the moderate right French political elites became increasingly more involved with the radical right, precisely the National Front, just like in the Austrian case. They argued that National Front is not as big of a villain as everyone once to make it out to be, that NF electorate has the right to be rep-‐ resented properly as French citizens, or that NF is a party just as any other political party.22