ESTRUCTURA MUROS Y TABIQUES .1. TABIQUERIA METALCON

Do primary caregiver fathers differ from secondary caregiver fathers on quality of parenting and parent-child interaction?

Fathers’ scores on the Quality of Parenting and Parent-Child Interaction factors were analysed using ANOVAs to compare the three family types (stay-at-home fathers, dual-earner fathers and breadwinner fathers). There was a significant difference between fathers on the Quality of Parenting factor, F(2, 124) = 5.35, p = .01, p² = .08, with a medium effect size. Contrasts revealed a significant

difference between stay-at-home fathers and breadwinner fathers (p < .005), such that stay-at-home fathers showed higher quality of parenting. The contrast between stay-at-home fathers and dual- earner fathers was not significant. Regarding the quality of Parent-Child Interaction factor, as the difference between fathers approached significance, F(2, 97) = 2.86, p = .06, p² = .06, additional

contrasts were run. There was a significant difference between stay-at-home fathers and breadwinner fathers, (p = .02), showing that stay-at-home fathers had higher quality parent-child interaction. Stay- at-home fathers did not differ significantly from dual-earners on quality of parent-child interaction.

Table 4.3.1. Means, SD, F, p and p² Values for Comparisons of the Quality of Parenting and Parent-

Child Interaction Factors between Fathers

Fathers ANOVA

Stay-at-home Dual-earner Breadwinner

M SD M SD M SD F df p p² Quality of Parenting 0.24 0.65 0.00 0.73 -0.23 0.61 5.35 2,124 .01 .08 Parent- child Interaction 0.16 0.45 -0.04 0.62 -0.13 0.51 2.86 2,97 .06 .06

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Do male and female primary caregivers differ on quality of parenting and parent-child interaction?

To examine parenting quality between primary caregivers, ANOVAs were run comparing stay- at-home fathers’, stay-at-home mothers’ and dual-earner mothers’ scores on the Quality of Parenting factor and the Parent-Child Interaction factor. There was no significant difference between the three groups of parents on Quality of Parenting (see Table 4.3.2). For the Parent-Child Interaction factor, differences between the three types of parents approached significance, F(2, 113) = 2.78, p = .07, p² = .05, hence additional contrasts were run. Stay-at-home fathers scored higher on quality of

parent-child interaction in comparison to dual-earner mothers (p = .03), with a small effect size. Stay- at-home fathers and stay-at-home mothers did not differ.

Table 4.3.2. Means, SD, F, p and p² Values for Comparisons of the Quality of Parenting and Parent-

Child Interaction Factors between Primary Caregivers

Parents ANOVA Stay-at- home Fathers Stay-at-home Mothers Dual-earner Mothers M SD M SD M SD F df p p² Quality of Parenting 0.24 0.65 0.03 0.55 -0.03 0.56 2.51 2,124 .09 .04 Parent- child Interaction 0.16 0.45 -0.05 0.62 -0.13 0.58 2.78 2,113 .07 .05

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Relationships between quality of parenting, parent-child interaction and parent adjustment

Bivariate correlations were conducted to explore associations between parental adjustment and both the Quality of Parenting and Parent-Child Interaction factors, for fathers and mothers (see Table 4.3.3).

For fathers, the Quality of Parenting factor was significantly negatively correlated with parenting stress (r = -.54, p < .001) and marital problems (r = -.35, p < .001), such that higher parenting stress and greater marital difficulties were associated with lower quality of parenting. The quality of parenting factor was significantly positively correlated with total support (r = .32, p < .001), coparenting (r = .43, p < .001), and the Parent-Child Interaction factor (r = .33, p < .01), reflecting that higher social support, higher quality coparenting and higher quality parent-child interaction were associated with higher quality of parenting.

For mothers, the Quality of Parenting factor was significantly negatively correlated with parenting stress (r = -.44, p < .001) and marital problems (r = -.24, p = .01), showing that higher parenting stress and greater marital problems were associated with lower quality of parenting. The Quality of Parenting factor was positively correlated with total support (r = .18, p = .05) and coparenting (r = .27, p < .01), such that greater support and positive coparenting were associated with higher quality of parenting. For mothers, unlike fathers, the Quality of Parenting factor was not significantly correlated with the quality of Parent-Child Interaction factor (r = .12, p = .22).

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Table 4.3.3. Pearson’s Correlations between Quality of Parenting, Quality of Parent-child Interaction and Parental Psychological Wellbeing Variables

Note. Mother correlations are above the Diagonal and Father correlations are below the diagonal. *p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

r r r r r r r

1. Parenting Quality Factor - .12 -.17 -.44*** .18* -.24* .27**

2. Quality of Interaction Factor .33** - -.06 -.07 .12 -.13 .16

3. Parent Mental Health (EDS and TAI) -.12 -.01 - .54*** -.37*** .30** -.24*

4. Parenting Stress (PSI) -.54*** -.15 .45*** - -.28** .36*** -.33***

5. Total Support (MSPSS) .32*** .20 -.42*** -.42*** - -.62*** .48***

6. Marital Quality (GRIMS) -.35*** -.15 .34*** .41*** -.54*** - -.54***

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Do primary caregiver fathers differ from secondary caregiver fathers on parent-child conflict?

To further examine the quality of parent-child relationship between fathers in different family types, Parent-Child Conflict scores from the parent interview (Frequency, Level and Resolution) were entered into a MANOVA. Pillai’s trace was not significant; F(6, 232) = 0.42, p = .87, p² = .01, revealing

that there were no significant differences between fathers on Frequency of Parent-Child Conflict, Level of Parent-Child Conflict, and Resolution of Parent-Child Conflict (see Table 4.3.4). For all three families, fathers typically experienced conflict with their children 2-3 times a week, with conflict generally lasting around 5 minutes.

Table 4.3.4. Means, SD, F, p and p² Values for Comparisons of the Parent-Child Conflict between

Fathers

Fathers ANOVA

Stay-at-

home Dual-earner Breadwinner

Conflict M SD M SD M SD F df p p²

Frequency 3.20 1.27 3.48 1.04 3.43 1.08 0.67 2,117 .51 .01 Level 1.38 0.49 1.33 0.57 1.40 0.55 0.20 2,117 .82 .00 Resolution 0.23 0.48 0.15 0.36 0.15 0.36 0.46 2,117 .63 .01

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Do primary caregiver fathers differ from primary caregiver mothers on parent-child conflict?

A MANOVA was run on primary caregivers’ scores on the three parent-child conflict variables; Frequency of Conflict, Level of Conflict, and Resolution of Conflict. Pillai’s trace was not significant;

F(6, 238) = 0.94, p = .47, p² = .02, showing that no significant differences emerged between stay-at-

home fathers, stay-at-home mothers and dual-earner mothers (see Table 4.3.5). Similar to the fathers, conflicts generally occurred 2-3 times a week between primary caregivers and their children, and these episodes were mostly regarded as minor conflicts, lasting around 5 minutes.

Table 4.3.5. Means, SD, F, p and p² Values for Comparisons of the Parent-Child Conflict between

Primary Caregivers Parents ANOVA Stay-at- home Father Stay-at-home Mother Dual-earner Mother Conflict M SD M SD M SD F df p p² Frequency 3.20 1.27 3.68 1.16 3.46 1.19 1.68 2,120 .19 .03 Level 1.38 0.49 1.48 0.59 1.36 0.58 0.56 2,120 .57 .01 Resolution 0.23 0.48 0.16 0.37 0.18 0.39 0.27 2,120 .76 .01

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