Estructura y función de las representaciones sociales

^^ L.M. Ivanov, "Preemstvennost fabrichno-zavodskogo truda i formirovanie proletariata v Rossii," p.96.

L.M. Ivanov, "Preemstvennost fabrichno-zavodskogo truda i formirovanie proletariata v Rossii," p.97.

K.A. Pazhitnov, Polozhenie rabochego klassa v Rossii vol. II Leningrad: 1924, p.23. Based on Pazhitnov's study of 288 establishments with 81, 573 workers.

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provide low cost transportation to workers returning home at Easter.69 in some areas, workers who made such a journey were expected to bring back "gifts" of produce for their foremen, and were punished for failing to do so.^o

Other sources describe workers as returning to their native villages because of unemployment, age, and infirmity. In 1885, a bad year for the textile industry, zemstvo statisticians in Moscow guberniia noted many workers who had lost their jobs were returning to the countryside, even though they were no longer accustomed to agricultural work.^i Precise statistics on such movement are unavailable. Similarly, factory doctors are quoted as complaining that ill workers often returned to the village instead of seeking care in the infirmary, but comprehensive figures were not gathered.72

If a significant proportion of factory workers retained close ties to the village, and returned there in time of need, we would expect this fact to be reflected in statistics on turnover in the industrial work force. Unfortunately, the industrial studies noted above do not include such statistics. However, overall census data can be used instead to trace departures from the city of Tula. Although these data do not refer specifically to factory workers or other occupational groups, they do clearly identify migrants and peasants, the groups from which most Tula factory workers were drawn. The remainder of the present chapter will focus on material from two municipal censuses of Tula, taken in 1880 and 1900, in order to determine how long peasant migrants tended to reside there and whether or not their

V. Smidovich, Materialy dlia opisaniia g. Tuly. p.30.

K.A. Pazhitnov, Polozhenie rabochego klassa v Rossii, St. Petersburg: 1906, pp.179- 180.

Statisticheskii ezhegodnik Moskovskoi gubernii za 1885 g. Moscow: 1886, pp.78-79,

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1 3 9

stays were permanent. The overall pattern of movement into and away from the city is first considered and then the statistics relating to specific groups within the population are examined.

Table 3-1: Migrants^s residing in the city of Tula, 1880 and 1900, by duration of residence

Number of years' residence

Less than one year One year

Two years

Three to five years (yearly average) Six to ten years (yearly average) Eleven to fifteen years (yearly average) Sixteen to tw^enty years (yearly average) More than twenty years Total migrant pwpulation^^ Total city-bom

of whom, ages 20 and above Sources: Pamiatmia Knizhka

Gubernii za 1880. Tula: 1881: 1900. 1880 Total 6,283 2,729 2,526 4,760 1,586 5,475 1,095 3,835 767 2,602 520 5,495 36324 6,142 As % of one year's in- migration 43% 40% 25% 17% 12% 8% 1900 Total 7,107 3,298 3,505 7,786 2,595 9,637 1,677 5,216 1,043 4,739 947 8,394 50,956 9,282 3,587 As % of one year's in- migration 46% 49% 37% 24% 15% 13%

Tulskoi Gubernii m 1880 god. Tula: 1880. Obzor Tulskoi

and Pamiatmia Knizhka Tulskoi Gubernii na 1900 Tula:

A crude estimate of movement away from Tula can be obtained by comparing the annual influx of migrants with the overall increase in the city's population. Of all persons counted in the 1880 census, 6,283 or thirteen per cent, had arrived in the city during the preceding

^^ Excludes foreigners.

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year. The comparable figure in 1900 was over 7,000 or just under ten per cent of the city population. Statisticians estimated Tula's overall population growth in the years preceding both censuses at roughly 3,000 persons or 0.89 per cent per annum. This figure included both natural increase G?irths exceeded deaths by 531 per annum in the years 1897 to 1900) and net increase through migration (estimated at 2,500). If more than 7,000 persons moved to Tula in 1900 and the net population growth was 3,000, then some 4,000 persons must have moved away from the dty in that year.

Precisely who were these 4,000? The census results suggest that many were migrants who had lived in Tula for only a few years. Table 3-2 lists the duration of residence of all migrants counted in the censuses of 1880 and 1900. If we suppose that the influx of migrants in 1899 was typical of other years and that approximately the same number moved to the dty in 1898, 1897, and so forth, then the top line of the table can be compared with each successive line to determine the rate of out-migration. In other words, if 7,000 migrants moved to Tula in 1898, more than half that group was no longer in the city by 1900. If the influx was the same in 1895, only thirty-seven per cent of that group was still in Tula in 1900.

Because the two censuses were taken exactly twenty years apart, a further computation of out-migration is possible. The total migration population of 1880 can be compared with the "more than twenty years' residence" group of 1900. Of 36,824 migrants residing in Tula in the earlier year, 8,394 or twenty-three per cent remained in 1900. When this decrease is averaged over twenty years, the annual rate of decrease is found to be 3.7 per cent. A similar calculation can be performed for the Tula born population. The 1880 census counted 6,142 persons as native-bom Tularites. Over thirty-eight per cent of

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this group was still residing in the dty twenty years later (counted in the 1900 census as "Tula born, aged twenty and above"). Although part of the decrease in both groups was due to mortality, we can conclude that many individuals moved away from Tula, and that those who had been bom elsewhere were more likely to leave.

Moreover, we can determine more precisely who was entering and leaving Tula by comparing figures for different sosloviia. Table 3- 2 shows the duration of residence of peasant and non-peasant migrants counted in the 1900 Tula census.

Table 3-2: Duration of residence of migrants in Tula in 1900, by soslovie (in percentages)

Years of residence Peasants _{Other Unprivileged^^sosloviia}

One year or less 22.3% 15.6%

Two years 7.6% 5.3%

Three to five years 16.6% 12.0%

Six to ten years 17.9% 14.6%

Eleven to fifteen years 11.1% 10.4%

Sixteen to twenty years 9.8% 10.6%

Twenty-one years and longer 14.5% 31.5%

100.0 100.0

Sources: Pamiatmia Knizhka Tulskoi Cubernii m 1900 god. Tula: 1900. and Obzor

Tulskoi Gubemii za 1900. Tula: 1901.

The proportion of peasants with one year or less of residence was half again as great as that of other unprivileged sosloviia, that is, meshchane and tsekhovye, "burghers" and "artisans," the groups whose working and living conditions most closely resembled those of peasant migrants. This pattern was reversed in the "over twenty

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years" group, which included 14.5 per cent of all peasant migrants but thirty-one per cent of migrants of other unprivileged sosloviia. Evidently peasants who moved to Tula were more likely than non- peasants to move away.

The above figures provide a number of clues as to the patterns of out-migration from Tula. However, although they suggest that many peasants who migrated to Tula did not remain there permanently, they do not indicate precisely where the out-migrants went when they left Tula. Did they return to the village or continue to work in other industrial centres? This question can be answered indirectly if we can determine the age breakdown of out-migrants. If they were mostly young and able-bodied, we might reasonably suppose that they were going to work elsewhere. If they were older, their chances of finding work in other localities would be smaller, and the likelihood that they were returning to the countryside greater.

Once again, existing statistical sources do not provide a direct answer to the question. No figures were compiled on out-migration. The published census results of 1880 and 1900 did, however, provide a detailed breakdown of Tula's population by age, and these figures are summarised in Table 3-3.

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