Estructuras del campo académico de la comunicación en México

As stated above, the programme addressed all levels of education and was designed to support two main goals:

 Goal 1: An increasing number of educational institutions in the Netherlands with entrepreneurship education integrated into their policy, their organisation and their curriculum; and

196 _{Onderwijs in ondernemerschap – Kamerbief. Kenmerk: 20120134/1044. Onderwijsraad, The Hague, 27 June} 2013.

 Goal 2: A growing number of students and pupils showing more entrepreneurial behaviour and starting up their own business within a period of five years after completing their education.198

Entrepreneurship was seen as a key competence for life. It was understood as a set of knowledge, skills and competences that are a precondition to generic entrepreneurial attitudes and behaviour as well as to founding a company; hence they are a key competence for lifelong learning.199

The design of the Action Programme was based on basic assumptions that were derived from studies and literature and from the observations of previous projects:200

1. One of the success factors for entrepreneurs and employees that can be influenced is education:

 an entrepreneur’s success is clearly linked to his or her education; and  the success rate of an extra year of education for entrepreneurs is on

average considerably higher than an extra year for employees.201

2. Entrepreneurial qualities such as creativity, the ability to do things independently, perseverance, a positive attitude towards risk-taking and an open mind to the outside world are best developed at a young age. Formative education in particular, can play a significant role in developing these qualities.202

3. Entrepreneurial qualities in general help people to manage independently in a changing world.203

4. The effectiveness of study programmes increases if they begin in primary and secondary schools.204 _{Hence, entrepreneurial qualities must} be developed primarily at a young age, i.e. in formative education. It should even be given priority in primary education.

5. In the Netherlands there is a lack of appropriate and readily available teaching aids for entrepreneurship education in the wider sense that interested teachers and students can refer to and use at their own discretion.205

6. Entrepreneurship education heightens the degree of a person’s willingness to take risks and establish a new company. It increases an individual’s chances of becoming involved in a new company by 25 per cent

198 _{Progress Report on the Education and Entrepreneurship Programme; The Hague, 2008. [online] Available at:} http://www.onderwijsonderneemt.nl/download/229_progress_report_on_the_entrepreneurship_and_education _programme_nov_2008

199 _{The document refers repeatedly to the ‘EU definition’ – meaning that it follows the definition presented in} the European ‘Key competences for lifelong learning’ framework; notably the key competence ‘sense of innovation and entrepreneurship’. [online] Available at:

http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/education_training_youth/lifelong_learning/c11090_en.htm 200 _{Cf. Progress Report on the Education and Entrepreneurship Programme; The Hague, 2008.}

201 _{Van der Sluis J., Van Praag C.M., Vijverberg W., 2003, Entrepreneurship selection and performance: a meta-}

analysis of the impact of education in industrialized countries, Discussion Paper, Tinbergen Institute, University

of Amsterdam; Entrepreneurship update - Onderwijs en ondernemerschap in Nederland - Mirjam van Praag, ACE, 2007.

202 _{A) Rushing, F.W., Economics and entrepreneurship in the elementary grades, in C.A. Kent (ed.),}

Entrepreneurship Education: Current Developments, Future Directions, New York: Quorom Books, 153-164,

1990. B) Peterman, Nicole and Jessica Kennedy. Enterprise Education: influencing students' perceptions of entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 129-144, 2003 c) 6 Bal, José et al., Ondernemerschap in het primair en voortgezet onderwijs, EIM, 2007.

203 _{Hytti, Ulla, State-of-art of enterprise education in Europe; Results from the Entredu project, Small Business} Institute, Turku School of Economics, [online] Available at: http://www.dntredu.com

204 _{Early development of entrepreneurial qualities: the role of initial education, EIM, 2003.} 205 _{Bal, José et al., Ondernemerschap in het primair en voortgezet onderwijs, EIM, 2007.}

compared to persons who have completed their study with no entrepreneurship education. Entrepreneurship education suggests an 11 per cent higher chance that after completing his or her studies a young person will become self-employed compared with those who have not followed entrepreneurship education.206

7. Entrepreneurship education offers teachers the opportunity to give stimulating lessons, and offers pupils and students the opportunity to develop new talents and important skills for the future. This contributes to the quality of education and can, for instance, give a boost to subjects such as mathematics and language in classes at all levels of education, from primary education (PO) to higher education (HO).

Through the different tracks, the Dutch Government provided subsidies to projects which aimed to develop entrepreneurship education (‘Onderwijs in Ondernemerschap, ONO’) across all levels of education. The subsidy scheme ‘Ondernemerschap en onderwijs 2007’ (Entrepreneurship and Education 2007), was developed to enable educational institutions to develop projects in association with the business community. A call for proposals (for € 17 million) was put out in 2007. It concerned two tracks:

 Track One (Spoor 1): The development of entrepreneurship projects in primary education (PO), secondary education (VO) and secondary vocational education (MBO). These projects focus on creating and encouraging a modern-day teaching environment; teaching aids and teaching methods for entrepreneurship; the further professionalisation of teachers in entrepreneurship; and reinforcement of the collaboration between students, entrepreneurs and teachers in the field of entrepreneurship.

 Track Two (Spoor 2): The further development of the (regional) Centres of Entrepreneurship (CoE) in higher education (HBO and WO). A Centre of Entrepreneurship focuses on directing, organising and facilitating multidisciplinary, institution-wide entrepreneurship education with the goal of encouraging entrepreneurship across all educational institutions and between individual educational institutions.207

In response to the call of 2007, 28 projects were selected and launched:

 6 projects concerned Centres of Entrepreneurship in the higher education (Track Two);208

 22 projects were divided as follows between primary education, secondary education and secondary vocational education (Track One):  9 projects in primary education;

 8 projects in secondary education; and

 5 projects in secondary vocational education.209

206 _{The Impact of Entrepreneurship Education: An Evaluation of the Berger Entrepreneurship Program at the}

University of Arizona 1985-1999, A. Charney et al., 2000.

207 _{Progress Report on the Education and Entrepreneurship Programme; 2008.}

208 _{[online] Available at: http://www.onderwijsonderneemt.nl/hogeronderwijs/centres_for_entrepreneurship} 209 _{Progress Report on the Education and Entrepreneurship Programme; 2008. An overview of the assigned} projects is included in Section 10.8.

The figure below presents an example of a project for each educational level. Figure 10.1 Examples of entrepreneurship education projects funded in the

period 2007-2011

In addition to the Track One and Track Two projects, through the ‘Education Networks Enterprise 2009’ (Onderwijs Netwerk Ondernemen, ONO 2009), the Netherlands provided a specific subsidy scheme to help educational institutions to integrate entrepreneurship education into their policies, organisation and curricula.210

Through this subsidy scheme, in 2009 and 2010, 88211 _{additional projects were} launched:

 26 projects in primary education;

 28 projects in secondary education; and

 34 projects in secondary vocational education.

In 2012, eight additional ‘good practice’ projects were funded in schools that already participated in the subsidy scheme, but asked for additional time to roll out their practice (two in primary education, three in secondary education, and three in secondary vocational education).