en el estud io de la cultu ra o rganizaciona l.

replaced various absent colleagues prior to 1586.^41 Rotan's versatility made him

137 RCP V II, 23 January 1596, p. 30.

138 RC 91, fol. 28,28 January 1596.

139

RC

92, fol. 9,10 January 1597;

RÇP

V II, 7 February 1597, p. 59. 140 RCP V II, 2 February 1599, p. 140.

attractive in other fields as well. When the m inister of the Genevan Italian church, Niccolo Balbani died in August 1587, the Italian church named Rotan as Balbani's successor, effectively m aking it impossible in the eyes of the Company of Pastors for Rotan to continue lecturing in Greek. On 25 August, Casaubon was asked whether he w ould consider returning to his Greek chair. He agreed, and was officially reappointed on 4 September 1587.142 Casaubon held the chair of Greek un til his departure for M ontpellier in 1596. D uring his nine-year tenure from 1587, Casaubon was the Genevan schola publica's leading figure.

Casaubon's considerable literary output was a factor in his scholarly

reputation, and by extension in that of the Academy. 143 However, his fame also had its disadvantage, in that he was expensive. In 1587, he was receiving a yearly salary of 500 florins, on a par w ith his professorial colleagues and Genevan city ministers. On 6 August 1591, however, after Casaubon had complained that he could not manage on the salary he was receiving and that he was receiving offers of

employment from elsewhere, the ministers asked the magistrates to act. In response, the magistrates gave Casaubon a g ift of 50 ecus, about 250 to 300 florins, and a g ift of wheat. 144 in December 1592, Casaubon again told the Genevan authorities that he was receiving tem pting offers from elsewhere. The Small Council then increased his wages to 800 florins a year, w hile his professorial colleagues remained on 500 florins a year. 145 in October 1594 and again in October 1595, Casaubon still complained that he could not make ends meet. In both years, the magistrates agreed to give him a g ift of 300 florins, which, added to his 800 florins annual salary, brought his total income to 1100 florins.146 Retaining Casaubon was so im portant to the magistrates that they decided in October 1585 to make their 300 florins g ift a secret one, so as not to make Casaubon's colleagues jealous. 147 Finally, on 20 January 1596, after

Casaubon complained that the noise of the children playing in the adjacent school-

142 RCP V, 21 August 1587, pp. 158-9; 25 August 1587, p. 159; 4 September 1587, p. 161.

143 Chaix, Les Livres imprimés, pp. 119,126,127,131,135,137,139,146. In 1587, Casaubon edited a geographical w ork by Strabon, and provided a commentary for it. In the same year, he published an annotated New Testament. In 1589, Casaubon edited the Greek version of Polyen's Stratagematum. In 1590, he edited a w ork of Aristotle, whereas in 1591, he brought out some of the letters of Pliny the younger. In 1592, he brought out an edition of Theophrastus, and a w ork by Diogenes Laertes in 1593. In 1594, he edited Apuleius's Apology, and in 1595, he published an edition of Suetonus' works, which was republished a year later in 1596.

144 RÇP V I, 6 August 1591, p. 81; RC 86, fol. 149,11 August 1591. 145 RCP V I, 8 December 1592, p. I l l and footnote.

146 RC 89, fol. 144,28 October 1594; RC 90, fol. 184,17 October 1596. 147 RC 90, fol. 184,17 October 1595.

yard was distracting him when he worked at home, the magistrates decided to give him 200 florins annually, to help him rent somewhere q u i e t e r 4 4 8

In the end, though the magistrates' investment in Casaubon may have kept him in Geneva for longer than if he had received the usual salary, better offers were still reaching Casaubon from elsewhere. By 16 November 1596, the Small Council had agreed to release Casaubon for M o n t p e l l i e r . ^49 Casaubon was only replaced on

7 February 1597 by Gaspard Laurent, who had already given lectures in the schola publica, but in arts, 10 years before.

The history of the chairs of arts and ancient languages after 1586 had its more d iffic u lt moments, chiefly because of the increasing com petition from other

institutions for outstanding professors. More and more, Geneva was forced to rely on local professors, who were not always interested or experienced enough to follow in the footsteps of their more illustrious predecessors in the schola publica. Such problems were inherent in restarting an institution like the schola publica after the 1586 hiatus, given that the energies of the Genevan authorities, professors, and students had turned to other matters during the period of closure. The history of the chair of theology, however, should reveal fewer problems, since it suffered no official interruption during 1586, although it is likely that student numbers declined in theology as w ell during the period of the blockade.

Beza and La Faye continued their lectures in theology, but as Beza grew older, he was less able to fu lfil his lecturing duties, and so began to look for an assistant and later for a successor. In 1587, Jean-Baptiste Rotan, then m inister of the Genevan Italian church, was also asked to lecture on the Loci Communes in the schola publica so as to maintain his links w ith the French language church and w ith the Company of Pastors. On 4 September 1587, Beza and Jacquemot proposed to the Small Council that Rotan should join Beza and La Faye as professor of theology: 'in this way, we w ould have three [professors] as they do in other famous cities, one to teach the Old Testament, one the New Testament, and the third to teach the C o m m o n p l a c e s ' .^30

The model of other centres of learning continued to be cited in support of desired innovations in the schola publica, at least when human and financial resources were available. There is no further evidence of Rotan's w ork as professor of theology, and in May 1589 he left Geneva for F r a n c e . ^31

:48 RC 91, fol. 19,20 January 1596. RÇP V II, 16 November 1596, p. 50. ^30 Borgeaud, Histoire, p. 237.

In September 1595, Beza's ill-health forced him to interrupt his teaching. The schola publica's theology lectures received temporary assistance from November 1595 u n til February 1596 from Conrad Vorst, from Cologne. Vorst had studied in Heidelberg, and agreed to lecture on the Loci Communes on 5 December 1595.^32 Once again he received no salary for his lectures, though the magistrates eventually decided on 4 February 1596 to give Vorst the usual professorial salary of 800 florins a year, if he agreed to a two-year contract. However, it was a case of too little , too late, as Vorst accepted instead a call to teach in the theological college of S t e i n f u r t . ^ 3 3

Another attempt was made in 1596 to find an outside scholar to lecture in theology in the Genevan schola publica. On 3 December 1596, Beza asked the Small Council to take measures so that Hermann Lignaridus, from Westphalia, w ould continue his successful theology lectures in the schola p u b l i c a . ^34 By 24 December

1596, Lignaridus had agreed to serve as professor of theology so long as he was released by his protector, the Elector Palatine. In exchange, the magistrates agreed to pay him 1600 florins a year, double the salary of the other professors. It is possible that the high salaries paid to Casaubon and Pacius had made it easier for the magistrates to contemplate offering an equally large sum to Lignaridus, but it may also be that the magistrates were aware both of the centrality of theology for the schola publica and of Beza's growing fra ilty, necessitating a replacement.

Lignaridus' appointment was unusual, in that he was the first officially salaried professor of theology never to have been a minister. Though Daneau had eventually devoted him self entirely to teaching, he had been ordained and had served as a parish m inister. Lignaridus was a layman, and as such, his status w ithin the Genevan ecclesiastical structures was somewhat ambiguous. As he was not a m inister, he did not receive lodgings from the Small Council, but instead was given 100 florins to cover his rental c o s t s .^35 On 22 July 1597, the Company of Pastors

asked Lignaridus to lecture every week, rather than every two weeks as had been done in the past. Once again, it is possible that the Genevan authorities were moving towards the establishment of a theology course which had more in common w ith universities than w ith the original seminary model established by Calvin.

Lignaridus did not retain his theology chair for long, since he accepted a post in the Academy of Berne in September 1598. One reason suggested for Lignaridus’ rapid departure from Geneva was that he had been involved in an oral disputation in March 1598 w ith a Catholic priest, the père Chérubin, in the Chablais region near

152 RÇP V II, 5 December 1595, p. 27.

153 RCP V II, 12 March 1596, p. 32 and footnotes. 154 RCP VII, 3 December 1596, p. 51.

99

156 RCP V II, 1 August 1598, p. 95 and footnote; 27 September 1598, pp. 109-10, p. 109

footnote.

157 RCP VU, 24 November 1598, p. 122.

158 R Ç P V II, 8 December 1598, p. 127.

159

RCP vn,

15 December 1598,

p.

129.

160 RCP V II, 4 January 1599, p. 134 and footnote. 161 RCP V II, 6 October 1598, p. 115.

Geneva. Père Chérubin was attempting to bring the local people back to

Catholicism, in an area where the Genevan Reformation had previously taken root. Their disputation had lasted tw o days, and its results were inconclusive, although Lignaridus' participation in the debate had placed the Genevan ministers in an awkward position. Though Lignaridus had entered into the debate in his own name only, the père Chérubin had used Lignaridus' participation as an opportunity to challenge the entire Genevan and Bernese Reformed churches to an oral duel, something which the Genevan ministers did not want, as they preferred the debate to be held in w riting. In other words, through Lignaridus' two-day encounter w ith the père Chérubin, the Genevan Company of Pastors was embroiled in a debate which it w ould rather have avoided altogether.^36

Lignaridus' departure for Berne in September 1598 left little more than | Antoine de La Faye lecturing. Charles Perrot agreed, as he had in the past, to lecture | as an interim measure between December 1598 and October 1599. A t first, the I Company attempted to have Perrot take over Lignaridus' weekly lecturing, and thus his chair, but La Faye then also indicated his willingness to lecture every week, aim ing for Lignaridus' post as well.^37 the end, the Company re-established the pattern of lectures from each professor to fall in alternate weeks.^38 order to facilitate the return to the previous pattern of lecturing, Beza even offered to teach twice a week on the theological method in Paul's Epistle to the Romans.^39 Beza

continued to lecture u n til 4 January 1599, still on Paul's Epistle to the Romans, but |

these were his last lectures in the schola publica.^60 ^

A final attempt was made in October 1598 to obtain an external scholar as theology professor for the Genevan schola publica. On 6 October, the Company of Pastors agreed that if possible, it w ould try to attract Franciscus Junius from Leiden to Geneva, as long as this could be done w ithout offending the Leiden university authorities. Junius, who was a former student of the Genevan schola publica, was thought to be a good candidate, particularly as he w ould be of assistance to Dutch students already in Geneva, and thus to the United Provinces as a whole.^61 Qn 24

October 1598, the m inister Simon Goulart approached the Small Council to warn them that in the event of Beza's death, a replacement professor of theology w ould be

162 RC 93, fo l 163, 24 October 1598.

163 RCP V II, 19 October 1599, p. 181 and footnote. 164 RÇP v n , 30 November 1599, p. 190.

165 Borgeaud, Histoire, p. 288.

needed, and that Junius seemed to be a good choice. 162 Though the Council agreed that Junius ought to be approached, he never came to Geneva, perhaps because of

growing ecclesiological differences w ith Beza after Junius' publication of the

I

Eirenikon.163

;

In 1599, after Beza had become too fra il to lecture, after Perrot had refused to carry on his own lecturing, and after all attempts had failed to fin d a foreign | professor to lecture in theology in the schola publica for any length of time. La Faye was left as the schola publica's only actively lecturing theology professor. On 30 November 1599, the Company of Pastors fille d the vacant chair by appointing Jean Diodati as professor of theology alongside La Faye. Diodati was already professor of Hebrew, and the Company of Pastors expected him to carry on his Hebrew lectures w hile at the same tim e shouldering half the teaching load in theology. D iodati was then 23. Clearly, the Company of Pastors felt that something permanent w ould result from Diodati's appointment, since the Company's secretary noted 'And so we now have two professors of theology, w ell set up for the f u t u r e ' .^64 Given that they

could not obtain anyone from outside Geneva, the ministers turned to a local candidate to fill the breach. W hile Diodati undoubtedly fu lfille d his lecturing responsibilities, due to his youth, it w ould be d ifficu lt to claim that he had in fact replaced Beza, Perrot, or any of the other theologians who had lectured in the schola publica before him. The chair of theology followed the pattern of the chairs of arts and ancient languages, in that in spite of attempts to restore the teaching to its form er levels and to attract and keep famous foreign scholars, the chairs of theology sank into a more m inor role, particularly as Beza, their mainstay, grew older.

When the Savoyard blockade was lifted, the ministers and magistrates

worked to put the schola publica back on its feet. In a move designed to ensure that the schola publica was restored in its entirety, including the law courses whose existence was not guaranteed in the Academy's statutes, Beza sent circular letters to Germany and to other areas, announcing the reopening of the schola publica at fu ll strength for the autumn of 1587.^65 fact, the re-establishment of the law courses was made easier by the fact that none of the professors dismissed the year before had left the city. On 20 November 1587, the Small Council decided to approach Lect, Colladon, Godefroy, and François Hotman, who had returned from Basle in 1584 and

who had been giving private courses in law in Geneva since t h e n 4 6 6 Godefroy, Lect

and Colladon all accepted the invitation to teach in return for their accustomed salary of 500 florins a year for the first two, and 400 florins a year for Colladon. Hotman, however, was only w illin g to teach in return for 300 ecus, or 1800 florins, a salary which the magistrates could not afford to p a y .^67 Therefore, the magistrates

only re-appointed Godefroy, Lect, and Colladon.

The relationship between professors' teaching duties and their private courses and research was s till an unresolved matter, as complaints were expressed about Denis Godefroy in 1588, because his editing and his private teaching distracted him from his lecturing obligations. The Company of Pastors recorded the complaint, and decided to have the rector of the Academy speak to Godefroy.^68 the same time, lay oversight of the Academy was on the increase, for when a vacancy had to be fille d in the ranks of the scholarchs in July 1588, the magistrates appointed Lect to the

p o s t . ^ 6 9 Thus, one of the schola publica's professors, a layman in a subject

championed particularly by laymen, was given the oversight of his own institution. If nothing else, Lect's role as a scholarch w ould have increased the law chairs' chance of survival, since he could have used his position to recommend their preservation.

Unfortunately, however, the course of events was too strong. In 1 5 8 9 , the war

between Savoy and Geneva began. From the start, Geneva's lim ited financial

resources were stretched to the lim it. In A p ril 1 5 8 9 , the Council decreed 'Given that

we need funds, it is agreed that [the professors of law] should be dismissed and that they shall no longer receive any s a l a r y ' .^7 0 A t this point, Godefroy left Geneva,

going to Basle, Strasbourg, and H e i d e l b e r g . ^ 7 1 r ^as only in 1 5 9 2 that the

magistrates began to consider once again the possibility of restarting the law courses. 'We have received reports from various places in Germany that if we were to re­ establish the teaching of law here, many students w ould come, including from

France, where schools are closed because of the wars. It is agreed that we should ask M. Lect and Colladon to t e a c h ' . ^ 7 2 L^^t and Colladon were w illin g , but the

magistrates felt that the law courses needed the presence of a famous law professor such as Godefroy, to attract a greater number of students. Godefroy was at that point in Strasbourg. The magistrates' attempts to get him to return to Geneva 166 RC 82, fol. 211,20 November 1587. 167 RC 82, fol. 223,10 December 1587. 168 RÇP V, 6 September 1588, p. 206. 169 RÇP V, 14 June 1588, p. 196 footnote. 170 RC 84, fol. 70,2 A p ril 1589. 171 Borgeaud, H istoire, p. 290. 172 RC 87, fol. 92 bis, 5 May 1592. 172 RC 87, fol. 163-4,15 August 1592.

foundered because of his demands for a salary higher than Geneva could afford. The magistrates let Godefroy know that they could not hire him under his conditions, but stated that 'we are w illin g to continue providing for the teaching of law through the means which God w ill give u s ' .^73

with

Lect and Colladon, the Small Council was

able to ensure that law w ould be taught in the Academy, though it s till looked for another professor from outside.

In June 1595, the magistrates made renewed efforts to have Godefroy return to teach law in the schola publica, but their proposals were not enough to attract

him.^74 instead, the magistrates agreed to have Pacius, who had returned from

Heidelberg and Sedan, teach in the schola publica once more, on the condition that

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