A number of researchers advocate that “metaphor signals” also called “metaphor markers” (Goatly, 2011), “metaphor tuning devices”(Cameron, 2002; 2003), or “metaphor flags” (Steen et al., 2010a; 2010b, 2010c). are linked to metaphor function in the (con)text (Goatly, 1997; Knudsen, 2003; 2005; Skorczynska Sznajder and Piqué, 2005; Skorczynska Sznajder and Deignan, 2006; Skorczynska Sznajder, 2010). Metaphor signals are defined as devices which can be used to identify metaphors in texts (Goatly 1997). Table 3.2 below summarises metaphor signals (what Goatly calls “markers”) and their categories.
Table 3.2 Goatly’s categorization of metaphor signals (markers) (1997:174-5) Marker category Metaphorical markers
1.Explicit markers metaphor/-ically, figurative/-ly. Trope
2.Intensifiers literally, really, actually, in fact, simply, fairly, just, absolutely, fully, completely, quite, thoroughly, utterly, veritable, regular 3. Hedges and
downtoners
in a /one way, a bit of, half-, practically, almost, not exactly, not so much, as, if not
4. Semantic metalanguage
in both/more than one sense/s, mean-(ing), import
5.Mimetic terms image, likeness, picture, parody, caricature, model, plan, effigy, imitation, artificial, mock 6.symbolism terms symbol(-ic/-ically), sign, type, token, instance,
example
7.Superordinate terms (some) (curious, strange, odd, peculiar, special) sort of, kind of
8.Copular similes like, as 9.Precision similes and
other comparisons
material verb + like x, the y of a x, y’s x; noun- adj, the x equivalent of
10.Clausal similes as if, as though
11.Perceptual processes seemed, sounded, looked, felt, tasted, +like/as though/as if
12.Misperception terms delusion, illusion, hallucination, mirage, phantom, fantasy, unreal
13.Cognitive processes believe, think, regard, unbelievable, incredible 14.Verbal processes say, call, refer to, swear
15. So to speak
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17.Modals + Verbal Processes
could say, might say
18. Modals must, certainly, surely, would, probable/-ly, may, might, could, possible/-ly, perhaps, impossible/-bility
19.Conditionals if…Could, would, might, imagine, suppose 20.as it were
As Table 3.2 shows, Goatly has proposed 20 categories of metaphors’ signals. Some of them can be used with non-metaphorical words as well as metaphorical ones. This is mainly the case for category 13, i.e. “cognitive processes” expressed by verbs such as believe, think, regard and adjectives such as unbelievable and incredible. This is also the case for category 14 “verbal processes” and category 16 “orthographical marker” such as white space. Skorczynska Sznajder and Piqué (2005) have used Goatly’s (1997/2011) categories to identify metaphors in two corpora: business research articles and business periodical articles and found that the use of the signals allows the identification of a large number of metaphors in the corpus. However, some signals such as the “orthographic markers” (category 16) are difficult to use as means of metaphor automatic identification in electronic corpora. This is because they may be used in the text to fulfil other purposes than metaphor signalling. Other signals among which: “such”, and “as”, “the intensifiers” or “verbal processes” are used with literal and non-literal words and hence, cannot be used for an automatic search for metaphors without a case by case verification. The analysis of the corpus compiled for the purposes of this study takes metaphor signals into consideration because of the role they play in popular science texts. In addition, some metaphor identifiers can be used in an automatic search in corpora (Philip 2008; Skorczynska Sznajder and Piqué 2005) .
From a translation point of view, signalling pattern can differ between the ST and TT. No research has been carried so far to analyse the possible shifts in metaphor signalling patterns between original and translated texts with the exception of Papadoudi (2014:46) who reports a more frequent use of metaphor signals in the TT compared to the ST. The researcher (2014:47) argues that metaphor signalling can be seen as an instance of a translation universal known as “explicitation” or to indicate the translator is not comfortable in transferring certain metaphors into the TT.
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Given the cultural gap between English and Arabic, metaphor signalling is expected to expand in the TT as means of explicitating metaphors that, otherwise, cannot be easily understood by the TT reader. To verify this hypothesis, metaphor signalling patterns in the ST and TT are discussed in some details in Chapters 7 and 8.
3.5 Conclusion
This chapter has provided a review of different views regarding metaphor use in scientific texts. The two main functions found to occur in popular science texts are the terminological function (theory-constitutive in Boyd’s terms) and pedagogical (or “exegetical metaphors” in Boyd’s terms). Other metaphors belonging to the common stock of language ( termed “generic metaphors”) are also found to be used in scientific texts but are thought to be non- genre and might feature in these texts as cohesive devices or to appeal to the reader’s attention.
Furthermore, the metaphor function depends on the genre and the context where it is used. Terminological metaphors, as argued by Knudsen (2003, 2005), are recontextualised and become pedagogical metaphors when used in popular science texts. The recontextualization of metaphors is often done by introducing a metaphor signal which means that signalling is an important feature of metaphor use in popular science articles. We have seen so far that the genre of popular science articles aims at communicating scientific knowledge to heterogeneous audiences that range from specialists from other disciplines to non-specialised readers. This act of communication is achieved by recontextualizing primary research articles to suit expectations of a heterogeneous audience. In this process of recontextualization, metaphors play a key role as a means of explaining specialised terms. Three functions are found to coexist in the genre of popular science articles. These are generic metaphors, terminological metaphors and pedagogical metaphors.
In the next chapter, this research is taken a step forwards by reviewing how metaphors have been dealt with from a translation perspective. The aim of the next chapter is to assess different metaphor translation theories in order to set up the theoretical framework for metaphor analysis in the specific context of popular science articles.
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