CAPÍTULO VIII. ANÁLISIS DE IMPACTO
8.1 ESTUDIO IMPACTO AMBIENTAL
Bent Flyvbjerg’s theoretical and methodological guidelines of phronēsis pave the way for the emergence of a new discipline called phronetic social science (PSS). PSS has been applied to a wide range of disciplines across social and natural sciences immediately after the publication of Flyvbjerg’s (2001) ‘Making Social Science Matter’ (MSSM). This book drew the attention of a large number of researchers around the world in defining the intellectual boundaries of phronēsis and PSS. PSS has been widely appreciated and its credibility is well-proven. It is observed that, through PSS, Flyvbjerg intends to work toward the realization of a good society (Schatzki, 2002). Graaff (2004) believes the work of Flvbjerg, Rorty and Gadamer on phronēsis provides ‘a new basis for the social sciences’. Stewart (2003) observes that PSS provides a fresh perspective of epistemological and methodological issues of a theoretical framework in conducting a phronetic enquiry. Apart from this recognition, PPR has also been widely applied both in natural and social science disciplines.
For example, Halverson (2004) applies phronēsis in the education sector. He finds that successful school leaders use phronetic artefacts for establishing the conditions for improving student learning. A similar experience was carried out by Clegg (2006b) in organizational analysis. He finds that organisational analysis is best cultivated in a world of discursive plurality where alternative viewpoints are explicitly tolerated. Frank (2004) applies phronēsis in the health sector by drawing a
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distinction between human sufferings as a natural and social phenomenon. He finds that experience is more important in the medical profession than rules and laws. Homann and Oranje (2006) bring this experience to the discipline of town planning. They focused on the human experience of the transformation process in the Tshwane city. They found that the absence of peoples’ voices as a serious flaw in this process. Jentoft (2006) extends PSS to the fisheries resource management process which, he argues, ‘must essentially be phronetic’. He finds that this process must be democratic and inclusive for effective fisheries governance. Zackariasson, et al. (2006) apply phronēsis to as diverse a field as video games development. They find that innovative and creative work needs to be incorporated in the development of these games. Life science and genetics were also not an exception to which Haimes and Williams (2007) used phronēsis to explore the relationship between sociology and ethics in their applications for policy formulation. They find a fundamental divide between disciplines suggesting future collaborative work.
In addition, phronēsis has also been successfully applied to various issues concerning the urban decision-making process. For example, Hammersley (2007) applied phronēsis in public management to investigate transparency and accountability issues. He emphasised the role of better communication in achieving transparency. Voronov (2009) used phronēsis to study the grey area between critical management studies (CMS) and the actual practice. They found that CMS is capable of addressing the questions of power and values necessary for better management. Basu (2009) applied PSS to explore the complex layers of regulations to protect and maintain the interests of a rational state model. He found that contextual dimensionality of a geographic information system is useful to better understand structural barriers in conflicting spaces of education. Billsberry and Birnik (2010) apply phronēsis in bridging the interesting gap between the contrasting arguments suggesting ‘management as a profession’ and ‘management as an art’. They find that management is a contextual practice requiring Aristotle’s all three of intellectual virtues to be incorporated. Gunder (2010) extended the application of PSS to spatial planning issues and urban policy discourse. He finds
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that phronēsis is useful in better understanding spatial planning and urban policy discourses.
The applications of phronēsis in such a wide range of fields make it the master virtue of the Aristotelian philosophy. The interpretation of phronēsis remains context-dependent, whose purpose is not to generate theory but praxis on the basis of case studies and contextual analyses. This thesis remains a continuation of these practices by generating praxis (section 3.2.1) based on contextual knowledge and values which when combined with episteme and techne establish real links between roads investment and economic growth.
The relation between roads investment with economic growth faces multifaceted challenges. There are several urban externalities which cannot be captured through economic evaluation tools (such as BCR) and require contextual understanding of the practical issues involved in roads planning. Each issue requires contextual understanding of various economic, social, environmental and spatial external factors in establishing the link between roads investment and economic growth. These challenges associated with such externalities are the real planning problem requiring the examination of individual cases and contexts of road projects. Using the PPR approach, such problems may be handled by adopting a three-step procedure: identification of dubious practices in advancing a policy, undermining such practices through problematization, and, development of new and better practices (Flyvbjerg et al., 2012, p. 6). The procedure suggests that there are no fixed solutions further suggesting that this thesis requires a problem-driven methodology which could suggest flexible context sensitive solutions and not the fixed figure work. This purpose is achieved through producing case based narratives called planning praxis. PPR is not aimed at producing a new theory but case-based contextual knowledge to address the planning issues concerning various economic, social, environmental and spatial externalities. These advantages make PPR a perfect case to be used as a theoretical framework for this research.
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3.5.
Conclusion
In view of the challenges faced by urban roads in enhancing the economic growth of cities, it is proposed to use the Aristotelian concept of phronēsis in determining how these challenges influence the relationship between the two notions. The underlying approach is to place practical issues in terms of the exercise of power at the centre in transport decision-making processes. The approach has the potential to produce case-based details as to how roads are advanced, what processes are followed and whether the outcome is desirable or not and, if not, what better practices can be introduced? The entire practice revolves around the interplay between the powerful and the powerless by following a social science approach in contrast to a natural science approach applied by the economic measurability tools. The purpose is not to produce right/wrong or true/false type fixed findings but to generate flexible contextual knowledge, in the contexts of developed and developing countries, based on the study of cases in line with the theoretical and methodological approach of PPR.
It is observed that power is an inseparable component of phronēsis and decision- making which is inherently conjoined with context and perception. It is also observed that context and perception are mutually conjoined. Therefore, evaluating social science issues, such as economic growth, on the fixed and predictive lines of natural science is misleading because contextual issues keep changing within varying power relations. It is also argued that power, context and perception need to be conjoined to understand the transport decision-making process with a view to understanding the real relation between roads investment and economic growth. Economic growth as a social phenomenon needs to be empowered in line with the challenges it faces in different contexts of different cases. The problem of perception is as applicable to the phenomenon of economic growth as it is to other social issues. Therefore perception of the term economic growth in the contexts of developed and developing countries needs attention. It is observed that the relation between roads investment and economic growth may be better understood
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through PPR narratives and contextual praxis. Six theories have been discussed with a view to examining power and its connection with context in explaining the missing link of phronēsis. Based on the analysis of these theories, Bent Flyvbjerg’s PPR has been critically discussed as a theoretical framework for this thesis. PPR is based on four value rational questions which inherently encompass practical and contextual issues of roads planning and decision-making. In the end, it is argued that phronēsis is Aristotle’s master virtue which needs to be preferred over episteme and techne in contextually relating roads investments with economic growth in developed and developing countries.
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CHAPTER FOUR
Research Design and Methods
The most important issue is not the individual methodology involved, even if methodological questions may have some significance. It is more important to get the result right, that is, arriving at a social science which effectively deals with public deliberation and praxis, rather than being stranded with a social science that vainly attempts to emulate natural science (Flyvbjerg, 2001, p. 129).
4.1.
Introduction
Having outlined the research rationale and theoretical underpinnings in the previous chapters, this chapter discusses the methodological framework and data collection techniques for this thesis. As stated in Chapter 1, the primary research question is as follows:
How are arguments for economic growth advanced to promote new road projects?
The research consists of two qualitative case studies of road projects from New Zealand and Pakistan. This chapter outlines the broad methodological approach, the specific qualitative methods (document analysis and interviews), ethical considerations and related aspects of research design and methods. This chapter is divided into three main parts. The first part outlines the research design constituting the information needed to construct the thesis, the methods used and other aspects of data collection. The second part discusses philosophical considerations for the selection of research methodology. Part three summarises a research strategy for data collection alongside an appraisal of the research questions and research methods.
As discussed in Chapter 3, Flyvbjerg (2004) presents a basic set of methodological guidelines. However, he argues that these guidelines are cautionary indicators of direction for researchers who follow the elements of phronēsis in their work. These guidelines should not be treated as imperative as there are many ways of practicing PPR, he argues. Accordingly he terms PPR as a ‘problem-driven approach’ rather
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than merely a ‘method-driven approach’ (ibid, p.291). Based on this argument, this chapter draws on the methodological guidelines of PPR in contextually understanding the relationship between building roads and achieving economic growth in the MacKays to Peka Peka (M2PP) expressway and Lahore Ring Road- Southern Loop (LRR-SL).