Estudio de la pérdida de carga bajo condiciones de flujo oscilante

Education in Europe became the aspect of social policy recently, and since the 1970s the European Union has gained a great deal of control over education matters, in comparison to the earlier times, when it belonged to the member states jurisdiction.

Pollack (1994, in Murphy 2003) argues that in comparison to the original Treaty of Rome in 1957, where education and social policy were neglected, the issues became actively pursued a decade later. Murphy (2003) referring to Hantrais (2000, p.1) indicates that there is a noticeable commitment to the social dimension in the European integration processes and in its economic policy. He calls it the ‘prerequisite rather than an end product of economic integration’. Some authors call this transformation in the EU in the field of education ‘covert activity’ (Ryba 1992, p.11) or ‘creeping extension’

(Field 1998, p. 26).

One of the key issues is the growing power of the EU in shaping educational policies of its member states (Murphy 2003). Rosenthal points out: ‘education policy, long viewed as an exclusive national prerogative, is now regarded as a vital instrument for creating a united Europe’. What consequences does it have for the member states and for the individuals? As Aronowitz and Pollack (1994, p. 96) have noticed that education perceived through the legal means of the European Court of Justice has allowed to pursue a European learning society with its mission to increase economic competitiveness and facilitate the development of a European form of citizenship (Murphy, 2003). The European Court of Justice (ECJ) has also provided an ‘expansive interpretation of European social law’ (Hantrais 2000, p.234 in Murphy 2003). Due to the above, the ECJ has impacted greatly the shape and scope of the social policy of its member states.

As Murphy continues there were mainly two European institutions responsible for the transformation of education and training policy in the last decade- the European Commission and the ECJ, through guidelines, resolutions, recommendations and reports (Murphy, 2003, p. 554).

The Treaty on European Union – Maastricht Treaty amended by the Treaty of Amsterdam of 1997, although not directly dealing with education, has transformed the role of education, introducing the distinction between education and training(chapter 3 of Title VIII, Article 126 –dealing with the issue of ‘quality education’ and Article 127 deals with vocational training). Shaw (1994, p.309) notices that the Article 126 and selective funding task lies in encouraging ‘the development of educational initiatives which foster the spirit and practice of European integration, including in particular

language training, mobility of students and teachers and enhanced mutual recognition’, all topics cited expressly in Article 126 (Murphy, 2003, p.556).

In 1993, the European Commission published a White Paper Growth, Competitiveness, and Employment: The Challenges and Ways Forward into the 21^st Century, which deals with the adaptation of education and vocational training systems in its Chapter 7. It also proposed the organisation of the ‘European Year of education’ in order to raise the awareness of the importance of the discussed issue. Two years later, in 1995, the White Paper on education and training was published, entitled Teaching and Learning:

Towards the Learning Society. This document launched the European year of Lifelong Learning. 1996 was the European Year of Lifelong Learning, which was the Commission’s effort to mark the importance of lifelong learning as the priority in Europe.

In 2000, the European Commission edited a Memorandum on Lifelong Learning, moving the EU focus on the lifelong issues as the guiding principle of learning context and ‘brought the discussion of the role education plays in fostering a European citizenship and shared identity, a knowledge and information society and the increase in economic competitiveness’(Murphy, 2003, p.557).

3.5.1 The Bologna Process

The main aim of the Bologna Process has been to create a European Higher Education Area (EHEA) based on international cooperation and academic exchange that is attractive to European students and staff as well as to students and staff from other parts of the world (Bologna Process official website⁷). This is a very important issue for this thesis, as never before in the history, have students such freedom in choosing a place to study and the opportunity for their professional development. The Bologna Process began in 1999 when 29 countries signed the Bologna Declaration. Ireland was one of the original 29 member states. Since July 2007 the process unites 47 countries. The Process involves European Commission, Council of Europe and UNESCO-CEPES, and representatives of higher education institutions, students, staff, employers and quality assurance agencies.

Following the changes brought by the Lisbon Convention and the Bologna Process, the academic staff in Europe has been increasingly dealing with foreign students or students from different ethnic backgrounds, which creates the need to adapt the teaching methods, competencies and abilities to this new reality. The

7 Source: http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/hogeronderwijs/bologna/

major challenge when discussing the issue of education and multiculturalism is dealing with some of the inherent tensions that arise in reconciling competing world views. Such tensions reflect the diversity of values which co-exist in a multicultural world. However, the dynamic interchange between competing aspects is what lends richness to the debate on education and multiculturalism[..]

which accommodates both universalism and cultural pluralism. This is particularly evident in the need to emphasize the universality of human rights, whilst maintaining cultural difference (UNESCO Guidelines on intercultural education, 2006, p.10)⁸

The Bologna Process puts also as its aim the mobility of students and the recognition of their qualification in all the countries participating in the Process. Its aims include a three-cycle system (Batchelor, Master, Doctorate), joint degrees, quality assurance, social dimension, employability, lifelong learning, The EHEA in a global context, doctoral studies and synergies between the EHEA and the European Research Area.

Mobility of staff, students and graduates is one of the core elements of the Bologna Process, creating opportunities for personal growth, developing international cooperation between individuals and institutions, enhancing the quality of higher education and research, and giving substance to the European dimension (Ministers responsible for Higher Education in the countries participating in the Bologna Process, London Communiqué, May 2007).⁹