Estudios sobre la presión aplicada por el mortero al trasdós del anillo

The terms cyber ethnography, digital ethnography, virtual ethnography and netnography have been used in the literature to describe ethnography by gathering data from online

interact offline, online and sometimes both. These online communities can be studied and digital tools exist that are useful for ethnography.

An important text for the study of ethnography is ‘Ethnography, principles in practise’ (Hammersley and Atkinson, 2007). There is just over one page of the book devoted to ‘ethnographies in the digital age’ but several references to digital tools and technologies in the book. The concept of digital and ethnography is a relatively small concern of this book but is viewed as follows; “the true benefit of digital technology finally emerges when the reader’s engagement with the ethnography and its associated data can be interactive” (ibid. p. 207). This highlighted the two-way nature of using technology to not only follow, but also to interact with participants in the field sites.

In a more recent book, Atkinson (2015, p.42) went a step further to include smartphone technology and noted that “many of our research hosts and informants inhabit multimedia worlds, producing and consuming text and audio-visual materials through social media. It is up to us as researchers to do as much”. Atkinson (p.43) continued, “We are clearly in a position to create genuinely novel, exploratory ways of reconstructing social worlds through digital means”. With the explosion of smartphones, social media and technology, this is having a huge impact on sport and its globalisation (Chadwick, 2009). Even the SCFC club owners Phil and Gary Neville were following their club updates and scores live on Twitter, including when they were away managing and coaching in Valencia (Draper, 2016). This is the nature of smartphones and social media embedded into the lives of football fans, players and owners. This provided the opportunity to reconstruct these digital interactions through ethnography.

The terms virtual or digital ethnography are both used with regard to ethnography of online communities. Ultimately, both terms refer to ethnography using primarily digital channels, which are best to obtain information to adequately address the research questions (Boellstorff et al, 2012). “Online ethnography and virtual ethnography (as well as many other

methodological neologisms) designate online fieldwork that follows from the conception of ethnography as an adaptable method” (Bowler, 2010, p.1270). Hine (2000) described how a virtual or digital ethnography is much the same as a traditional ethnography, the difference being that we are analysing the patterns and meanings of the people behind the screen.

Turkle (1995, p.10) described digital media as an opportunity to create communities whereby people interact globally and “with who we have fairly intimate relationships but whom we may never physically meet”. Going beyond the screen, Greschke (2007) argued that virtual ethnography should not just focus on screen research, but should also include physical observation to explore how the digital activities are part of the lives of the participants. Boellstorff et al (2012, p.6) reinforced this, making the point that the group being observed must be followed to wherever they are, be that in a virtual world, forum, blog, Facebook or at a physical event. This approach was adhered to in this ethnography. The addition of

interviews in particular allowed data to be captured from beyond the screen.

Tom Boellstorff is an anthropologist who has undertaken ethnographies in virtual worlds in novel and exploratory ways. His book “The coming of age in Second Life” (Boellstorff, 2008) evaluated the issues of gender, race, sex, money, conflict and antisocial behaviour within the virtual world of Second Life. Boellstorff has also collaborated with several other authors to produce ‘Ethnography and virtual worlds: A handbook of method’ (Boellstorff et al., 2012). The authors highlighted that studying virtual worlds is not only feasible but also crucial to developing research methods that keep up with people and technology changes. This approach provides “powerful resources for the study of cultures” (ibid. p.6). Boellstorff et al focussed their ethnographical works on 3D virtual worlds, but the concept of pushing the boundaries of ethnographical research remains important (Kozinets, 2015).

Channels such as Second Life and World of Warcraft are classed as virtual worlds by scholars such as Boellstorff et al, (2012). They defined virtual worlds as always on and requiring worldness and embodiment. This embodiment is usually associated with the person having an embodied character within some kind of fictional, often 3D virtual world. Social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter are sometimes described as virtual worlds. At the time of writing, these do not in themselves match the description of virtual worlds that Boellstorff and his fellow researchers describe. Kozinets (2015, p.35) described Second Life as a virtual world, distinct from social networking sites such as Facebook. In this PhD study of online football communities it is the social networks and other websites are of primary importance as opposed to what Boellstorff and his colleagues would describe as virtual worlds. These virtual worlds are not used by SCFC at the time of writing. Virtual worlds such as Second Life are also beyond the scope of this study. Kozinets (2015, p.35) stated that

experiences that can create strong social ties between members, resulting in more meaningful or longer lasting relationships”.