Evaluación del desempeño laboral

According to Croll (1986), systematic observation is ‗the process, whereby an observer or a group of observers devise a systematic set of rules for recording and classifying classroom events‘ (p.1). There has been considerable controversy about the appropriateness and methodological adequacy of this approach.

Maykut and Morehouse (1995) suggest that human settings and people are ‗too complex to be captured by a static one dimensional approach‘. Furthermore, Bryman (1998) outlined the advantages of combining methods. Hence, in order to facilitate aim 2, (to investigate of whether the Muslim female identity impacts upon participation in school-based PE), aim 3 (PE teachers‘ perception of the Muslim female identity and how they meet the needs of female Muslim pupils in PE and school sport) and aim 4 (whether the PE teachers use inclusive practices in their lessons), systematic classroom observation was carried out. As well as being used to monitor aspects of whole class behaviour, systematic observation can be used to monitor those of specific individuals, in particular, for the purposes of this present study, whether the Muslim female identity impacts on their participation on school-based PE, or not and also, whether the teachers use inclusive practices in their lessons. Thus, both teacher and pupil behaviour in the ‗classroom‘ were observed. An example of the Observation Sheet is appended (Appendix 7). Observation was necessary to look beyond the sanitised views of events, not because teachers and pupils would deliberately obscure the truth, but to recognise that they may genuinely have been unaware of the complexities of the setting (Paterson, Bottorff &

Hewat 2003). Observation can also enrich and supplement data gathered by other techniques (Simpson & Tuson, 1995, p.17).

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If anyone was asked to spend a period of time observing a classroom and then asked to describe what they have seen, we would inevitably find that the content of our descriptions was heavily influenced by the purpose for which we were asked to carry out the observation. Traditionally, within any research, there is a need for researchers to dissociate themselves from the particulars of the situation at hand in order to achieve objectivity (Sparkes, 1992). After deciding on the pupils to be observed and the procedure for organizing the observation, it is necessary to decide on the variables and categories to be used in classifying children‘s activities in the classroom. These are determined by the research questions, which the observations are designed to answer. Aims 2 and 4 address whether Muslim pupils have the same classroom experiences as their non-Muslim peers. Second, the observation was intended to show if Muslim schoolgirls had different levels of engagement with their work and different types of interaction with their teachers than non- Muslim pupils. This means that the variables had to describe pupils‘ work activities and types of pupil-teacher interaction. The set of categories provides a simple description of child activity and pupil inter-action.

The teachers‘ inter-action was adapted from Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) (1970). According to Croll (1986) ‗this system can provide a wealth of information about teaching processes‘ (p.40). The most commonly used procedure for conducting systematic observation in classrooms is that of Live Observation by a researcher using a simple paper and pencil recording device, often together with a simple timekeeping device. In this approach the observation is truly ‗live‘. I did not have mechanical aids such as a video camera and I did not rely on memory but the process of observing and recording was simultaneous.

The advantage of this procedure is that it is relatively unobtrusive in the classroom and that it takes advantage of the flexibility of a human observer. A single observer can avoid becoming intrusive in most classroom situations and can easily switch attention between different individuals or different aspects of events and can readily adapt to respond to what is going on. A limitation of live observation is that it must be possible for the observer to record and observe simultaneously. An alternative approach to live observations in the classroom is that of video-recording and can be subject to a more complex and flexible analysis than is possible in any live observation. The observer can play and replay the tape and can stop while making notes and coding decisions and

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can replay particular events if the appropriate coding is in doubt. The other advantages of video tape recordings are that a large number of observers can view the same material. This may also facilitate a multi-faceted approach to the same research problem. Furthermore, the researcher can also change and develop the observation system during the period of analysis. Despite these advantages there are a number of limitations with video recording. Video recording is relatively expensive and recording in classrooms requires considerably more organisation and is more obtrusive than a single researcher recording their observations. The intrusiveness of the equipment as well as the association of being ‗on television‘ make it more difficult for the researcher using a video recording than for the live observer to overcome the danger of influencing the situation being observed.

Ethical considerations

I was acutely aware of the ethical issues embedded in a study of this nature. In considering the ethics of the various research approaches used in this study, I was aware of the ethical guidelines and established regulations such as those produced by the British Educational Research Association (BERA, 2004). As Greig and Taylor (1999) explained, ‗the practical difficulties of gaining access to settings‘ (p.92) could have limited the research. Top down access to schools was obtained in that permission to access the staff, pupils and data in each school was initially sought from Headteachers (Appendix 2). One school, High Clare [pseudonym] declined permission to participate because the Headteacher did not ‗consider the research study a priority at the present time‘.

Entry to the PE setting was negotiated first with the Head of Department and then with the individual staff to whom the research was outlined, both verbally and in writing. No staff declined to take part at any time and all were supportive and co-operative. As my research also involved direct contact with individual children, parental and child permission was sought (see appendices 3 and 4). The Headteachers assisted in forwarding letters to parents and collaborating in gaining permission. All the children were of secondary school age, which, David et al., (2001) argue, is an appropriate level of child competence to make informed decisions. Even though parents and teachers

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had given their permission, further conversations and explanations explored the nature and purpose of the research with the Muslim schoolgirls.

McNiff (2000) emphasised the importance of the right to withdraw from the research, a feature, which was drawn to the attention of staff and pupils as the study progressed. Moreover, an integral part of this environment was the need to be explicit in the format and purpose of the organised interview. Consent was sought to tape-record the interviews on the assurance that all data would remain confidential. It is interesting to note here that the participants in the pilot and main study did not object to the actual name being used. Nevertheless, it is a research convention not to reveal actual names and it is important to respect individuals‘ values and sense of privacy. However, rather than assigning a number to each respondent in a dehumanising fashion, their names were replaced by pseudonyms, thus ensuring their anonymity, yet retaining the essence of the thesis. This code of confidentiality was extended to the schools and pseudonyms were ascribed to them. Moreover, the town in which these schools are situated has not been named, otherwise because of the nature of their intake the schools would have been easily identifiable. Denscombe and Aubrook (1992) also make a valid point about the avoidance of undue intrusion. Data pertaining to specific individuals remained available to them and only the researcher had access to their data in this raw form. Researcher and participants agreed that tapes would not be publicly placed, since this would deprive participants of their anonymity.

The most important aspect of the interviewer‘s approach involves conveying the idea that the participant‘s information is acceptable and valuable (Marshall & Rossman, 1989). It is better to appear slightly naive and agreeable than to give any sign of a critical or sardonic attitude (McCracken, 1988). During the interviews, I listened with an open mind to the perspectives of the pupils and teachers as regards the various issues under investigation. David et al., (2001) suggest that ethical considerations such as informed consent change over time and that access may need to be renegotiated. At different stages of the research, different levels of involvement may be required and it is, therefore, important to negotiate consent at each stage. A change may also occur within the school such as a new member of staff, Head of Department etc., and this will also require renegotiation of permission to research. Permission was sought from teachers and pupils for tape-recording the interviews. They may not have expressed

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their views on tape with such candour had I not been able to establish some form of trust and credibility.

McCracken (1988) maintains that time scarcity and concern for privacy stand as important impediments to the qualitative study of modern life and it is precisely these impediments that make the long interview so valuable as a means of enquiry. This research strategy gives access to individuals without violating their privacy, or testing their patience, and without prolonged contact within a manageable methodological context. Finch (1993), discussing research by women on women, observes that a crucial point, often overlooked in arguments on research ethics, is that collective, not merely individual interests are at stake. The latter may be relatively easily secured with guarantees of confidentiality, anonymity, codes of ethics and so on. It is far more difficult to devise ways of ensuring that information given so readily in interviews will not be used ultimately against the collective interests of female Muslims or PE teachers.

It is indeed impossible to ensure that the data laid open for a reader‘s perusal would not be used in unfavourable ways. While every researcher undertakes a research study with the intention of helping rather than damaging the subjects and their counterparts in the wider world, the researcher‘s accountability ends by ensuring the anonymity of individual subjects. The present study has elucidated such a culture. The ultimate responsibility lies with the readers, policy-makers to use the data in ways, which assure the collective benefits of the wider population.

Pilot study

The use of a pilot study is seen as advantageous as it can lend credence to the researcher‘s claim, and to illustrate the ability to conduct and manage a qualitative study. An extensive literature review was carried out prior to the pilot study to establish significant factors and issues that may contribute to some Muslim girls‘ negative perceptions and experiences of PE and also PE teachers‘ philosophies and attitudes to inclusion (Green 1994; Groves, 2007). Awareness of the main aims of the research was also a significant feature when designing the key questions for the semi- structured interviews. It was important to conduct a pilot study prior to the main

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research to establish appropriate questions for the semi-structured interviews and also for the systematic observation sheets. Black‘s (1999) advice to avoid over- complicated questions was also useful when reviewing feedback and in ensuring that participants understood the questions. Where appropriate the wording was simplified as the pilot study progressed. Due consideration was also given to politically correct language.

I was aware of the potential problem of power differentials interfering with the research particularly on school experience (Sparkes & Mackay 1996). I realised that my position as a teacher might affect the students' ability to be entirely open and honest with me about their experiences and reflections. Therefore, a process of familiarisation of a month was spent in the pilot study school, which consisted of one visit per week. Time spent in the pilot school in this research enabled an objective exploration of engagement with students and their teachers, observing PE classes and an opportunity to talk informally with staff and students. This process helped to develop a rapport prior to the administering of semi-structured interviews.

The interviews were recorded with the permission of the respondents. A short time at the beginning of the interview was spent explaining the project to the respondents, telling them about the possibility of another interview and assuring them of confidentiality and anonymity. The interviewees were also given the opportunity to ask about my background, education and experience and the reason for undertaking this project. This part was not recorded. The recorded part of the interview involved the use of semi-structured interview schedules. Additionally, appropriate extemporaneous supplementary questions were formulated and asked during the pilot interviews depending on the interviewee‘s answer to the initial question. The interview schedules started with some biographical data, which were deemed appropriate to develop a rapport and to put the interviewees at ease, before progressing into the desired more focused area of the investigation. This worked successfully with the teachers who welcomed the opportunity to talk at length about why they wished to teach PE, the girls were less comfortable with this schedule.

In light of the pilot study, the interview schedules were changed for the Muslim schoolgirls who seemed more comfortable with questions that dealt with attitudes to

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school first and more biographical data later in the schedules whereas the opposite was true for PE teachers. The interview schedules were, therefore, tailored accordingly.

Selecting the sample for the pilot study

The school selected for the pilot study was ‗Birchincliffe School‘, (pseudonym) which is part of Dudley Metropolitan Borough Council (MBC). Details of the school are provided in the sample school details on page 196.

Two schoolgirl Muslim females and one teacher were interviewed as part of the pilot study. A brief summary of the girls and teacher‘s pilot is provided in the immediately following section, which focuses on the main issues arising from the pilot study including items, which needed clarification.

Girl’s pilot

For the pilot study, the Muslim schoolgirls were interviewed first. I envisaged that the girls would raise issues, which could be useful in formulating questions for the teachers. The data generated in the pilot study were of clarificatory nature and not to be used in the main study. This was a selective sample and their PE teacher indicated that they would not be available for the main stage of the research as they were leaving the school in a months‘ time and so it would be beneficial to interview them as part of the pilot. The two girls selected for the pilot study were interviewed together at their request. However, it became evident that one of the interviewees did try to dominate the interview process but as an interviewer I had to encourage equality of participation. It was important to avoid over complicated terminology with the Muslim schoolgirls. Asking about abstract concepts such as identity and school ethos was avoided. Instead these concepts had to be framed in more meaningful terms. I also had to avoid leading questions and direct the respondents to opinions and expressions not of their own construction. Similarly, I had to be careful not to coerce interviewees into expressing an opinion more closely aligned with the literature or contrary to the literature. Previous studies (Afshar 1989; Basit 1997; Abbas 2001) into Muslim girls and their attitude to school used the question: ‗Were you born in this country?‘ I removed this question following the pilot study as it had little relevance to my research. The

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interviews were transcribed verbatim. The experience of transcribing the interviews helped me to place the data into categories.

Teacher’s pilot

The pilot study gave me the opportunity to check clarity of questions and where appropriate to re-order the questions. The pilot interview with the teacher was selected for convenience to fit in with timetable obligations. Burgess (1984) points out that researchers need to take note of the three-term cycle and its influence upon time-tables and related activities. The teacher involved in the pilot study was interviewed separately. One of the questions posed to the PE teacher asked: „Do you think that

Muslim girls enjoy PE?‟ was considered too vague and the teacher involved in the pilot

study struggled to make sense of it. It was, therefore, removed from the main study. Unnecessary jargon/abbreviations were also avoided; I assumed that all teachers would be aware of the term ‗NCPE‘ but the pilot teacher at Birchincliffe School was unaware of this abbreviation. I, therefore, asked the term in full in subsequent interviews. In order to meet with the overall purpose/aims of the study various issues were pursued through appropriately framed and follow-up questions. The pilot questionnaires are presented in Appendix 5.

Sampling

The groups of pupils and teachers selected were not intended to represent some part of the larger world but to offer instead an opportunity to glimpse the complicated character, organisation and logic of culture. The issue is to gain access to the cultural categories and assumptions according to which one culture construes the world. MacCracken (1997) contends that the first principle for the selection of participants in qualitative research is less is more. It is important to work longer and with greater care with a few people than more superficially with many. This group was not chosen to represent some part of the larger world but offers, instead, an opportunity to glimpse the complicated character, organisation and logic of culture. The issue was to gain access to the cultural categories and assumptions according to which culture construes the world.

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The present study was confined to a study of ten Muslim girls in two schools in year 11 and their PE teachers. The sample of girls selected consisted of all of the Muslim pupils in that year group. The sample of Muslim girls in Chamberlain school consisted of 5 Year 11 pupils. Only one Muslim girl refused to take part. The Year 11 Muslim girls were thought to represent a crystallisation of the values inculcated by the school and an end result of the educative process. They were also assumed to be reasonably articulate at this age (Basit, 1997). It seemed appropriate to choose the sample in those areas, which had a high proportion of Muslim settlement. Two towns in the ‗black country‘ were selected for this purpose. The majority of the Muslim population inhabiting these two urban, industrialised areas originates from the rural parts of Pakistan and some are from Bangladesh. The bulk of research on British Muslims has so far been undertaken in the Midlands (Basit, 1995; Abbas, 2003; and Benn & Webb, 2008). Ideally, it might have been more beneficial to investigate the experiences of Muslims in another area of Muslim settlement. This would have enhanced the findings and perhaps have provided a clearer picture of the life of Muslim girls. However, the