American study abroad participation continues to grow, albeit quite slowly. The IIE (2011b:1) has reported that 270, 604 American students studied abroad in 09/10. This is only 1.4% of the total number of U.S. Higher Education students. 63.5% are female, 78.8% are white and 81.8% are undergraduates. The numbers of white students and female participants have seen a slight decrease over the last decade but are relatively stable majorities. This non-diverse representation is a central concern in the field.
Salisbury, Umbach, Paulsen, and Pascarella (2009:137) argue that ―predisposition to study
abroad reveals a complex interplay between socioeconomic status, social and cultural capital accumulated before college, and social and cultural capital gained during the freshman year. The combination of these factors influences a student‘s intent to study abroad substantially…‖
While theirs was a study of intent to study abroad, and while it is recognised that intent does not necessarily lead to participation, it is not unreasonable to expect that these findings provide an indication towards the importance of socio-economic status in SA participation. Indeed it is almost folk-wisdom that socioeconomic status is one of the key barriers to participation in SA (e.g. NAFSA 2003:9).
Received wisdom offers that typical drivers of SA participation are; increased second language competency, gaining knowledge of other cultures and the opportunity to travel (e.g.
8
The Forum is a young but influential organisation with hundreds of American company, university and research group members. It has released, amongst other publications, a Codes of Ethics for Education Abroad and a Standards of Good Practice for Education Abroad.
25 Talburt and Stewart 1999, NAFSA 2003). However, Stroud summarises the academic situation in the following way;
―unpublished doctoral dissertations comprise the majority of the research on the topic, the findings are not readily available to study abroad professionals nor to those who work with students at colleges and universities. In addition, the extant research consists almost entirely of single institution studies with small, convenience samples that may not accurately represent the target population, and some studies have employed questionable research methodologies.‖ (Stroud 2010:495)
More recent, broad, and technically sound research into study abroad motivations indicates that the picture is more complex. While the aforementioned reasons given for SA are the ‗stock answers‘ or even the answers proponents of SA would like to hear, the reality may be
very different. Cantwell, Luca and Lee (2008) reiterate the importance of context in postmodern research. They found that geographical regions of origin play an important role in intent to study abroad. They also suggest that the interaction (perceived or real) between the country of origin and the host country affected students‘ perceptions of their SA experience.
This will become an important point later in this thesis as the author shows how discourses of power and prestige play a part in the construction of international student identities.
Stroud‘s research highlights the fact that increasingly, SA is seen as provoking
―… potential learning outcomes, such as development of intercultural communication and global understanding, [which] have become an economic commodity with high value in the global marketplace.‖ (Stroud 2010:504)
It is important to note that outcomes once stated to be goals within themselves, or at least ‗for peace‘, have become reduced to economic commodities. Goel, De Jong, and Schnusenberg
(2010:260), in another recent study, would seem to concur with Stroud. They found that ―behavioural beliefs are the primary drivers of study abroad participation.‖ These behavioural beliefs are defined as ―[the] individual‘s perception of the degree to which his/her behavior will influence a desired outcome‖ and include factors such as: ―Promise of international
26 higher education experience‖; ―Perceived career value‖; ―Graduation dates, future job prospects‖; and ―[that it is a] transformative learning experience.‖ (2010:253) Once again, it
follows that ideals such as mutual understanding or cultural knowledge are no longer of value in and of themselves, but because of the perceived value these skills bring.
It would appear that this is not only a perception by students but one with which business and employers concur. Trooboff, Vande Berg & Rayman (2007:29) have concluded that ―it is
clear that employers in general, and some classes of employers in particular, place significant value on studying abroad.‖ They go on to stress the point;
―studying abroad is not, in and of itself, a way to get a job… However, students who opt to study abroad are making a decision that can have a very positive impact on their employability. Employers clearly value many of the qualities, and especially the skills, that international educators associate with study abroad.‖ (2007:31)
It is worth reiterating that cultural understanding through SA has been commodified. Knowledge of other cultures and all the concomitant skills are no longer the goal; they have become a resource to use in the pursuit of a further goal. Agbaria (2009:67-68) argues that this ―might jeopardize the social goal of educating citizens who can advocate the interests of
public and global responsibility. What is at stake here is turning global citizen skills into merely skills needed for the workplace.‖
In my view, the problem is not with business wanting students with the attributes outlined above, nor with students obtaining said attributes to ‗increase employability‘. The problem arises when students study abroad but can‘t or don‘t want to obtain the skills they‘re
ostensibly learning. As has been shown above, just going abroad does not guarantee the change one expects to see. Hence the intervention into the learning process recommended by Vande Berg (2009). Franz (1998:68) proposes that the intervention should be about transforming ―passive recipients into active educational partners‖. Ways in which students
27 construct their identities through discourses, and indeed ways in which SA helps co-construct those identities, can help inform this intervention.