A review on how the curriculum changes are implemented in Namibia and sub-Saharan Africa is critical to provide information about difficulties and impediments encountered by teachers in the implementation process. It also reveals the subjective interpretations of teachers regarding the reforms within their different working contexts. Literature has shown that several studies on learner-centeredness and its implementation have been conducted in the Namibian context. These studies have negotiated on a variety of learner-centred issues, to mention but a few: conceptualisation and interpretation of learner-centeredness (Kasanda et al., 2005; National Institute for Educational Development, 2003; O'Sullivan, 2004b), practical guidelines regarding its implementation (Mubita, 1998; Thekwane, 2001), how teachers in various subjects implement and the extent to which they implement it (Awe, 2007; Kapenda, 2008; Mbangula, 2010; O'Sullivan, 2002, 2004b; Van Graan, 1998), critical reflection practice (Luwango, 2008; Zeichner et al., 1998), and on how teacher educators interpret and practice it (Nyambe & Wilmot, 2012).
As the case with many contexts in developing sub-Saharan countries, the findings on how LCE is implemented by teachers in Namibia are not much different. The following are the findings of some recent studies conducted in the Namibian contexts. O'Sullivan (2002), has explored the role of teachers in the LCE reform process of English Language teaching within the framework of objective and subjective ‘classroot reality’ implementation factors. The study discovered that failure to take into account teachers’ real working situations in the development of reforms by policy makers has resulted in teachers not successfully implementing the LCE reforms. It is also borne out of the fact that reforms are too beyond teachers’ professional capacity and comprehension that is; the level of education received by teachers is too short to make them understand and be able to do what is demanded of them. Another study was conducted by the same researcher, O'Sullivan (2004b), exploring the implementation of learner-centred approaches by unqualified primary teachers who were undertaking the INSET program. The findings however, still indicate that teachers were not
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implementing the LCA as they were trained to do in the INSET program, attached reasons being of low professional capacity of teachers, limited resources, cultural factors and learner background.
In a study conducted in a largely rural and developing Omusati region, Awe (2007), has attempted to determine teachers’ knowledge and practices of learner-centred methods of teaching Physical Science. The findings reported that few learner-centred practices, to promote active participation of learners, have been implemented in classrooms. Teachers are described as demonstrating a sound knowledge of different learner-centred methods. However, due to shortage of chairs, teaching and learning materials and science equipment indispensable for learner-centred approach, they are reported using more of teacher-centred lecture methods to retain control over teaching and learning process. The study conducted by Kapenda (2008) has investigated how Mathematics teachers in a largely urban Khomas region implement learner-centred education. The study indicates that teachers are making a remarkable effort in shifting to learner-centred methods because they are using expository methods more often than lecture and discussion strategies. Amidst their best efforts to implement the learner-centered approach in classrooms, challenges such as lack or insufficiency of resources, large classes and lack of discipline among learners are still persistent and make it difficult to do their utmost best.
In the same way Mbangula (2010), has investigated the understanding and implementation of LCE of Oshindonga teachers in Oshana region classrooms. She contends that while teachers are trying to implement learner-centered approach, there is a challenge of misconceptions and inconsistencies, that is, a disagreement between what teachers profess and what they practice. Some teachers are seen to show little understanding and enactment of the learning theory that underpins the learner-centred education. Like other studies discussed earlier, this study also reports challenges and problems hindering the effective implementation of learner-centred education. In order to determine the views of teachers on factors that influence the implementation of guidance and counselling services, Mbongo (2013) evaluated the guidance and counselling services provided in senior secondary schools in Ohangwena region. Reasons such as insufficient training, overloading, and shortage of time, little or no support, and lack of resources and facilities were identified and assumed by teacher councillors as limiting the effective implementation of the program. How teachers perceive and interpret school guidance and counselling is subjected to individual biographical factors such as age, teaching and counselling experience and training received, as well as other personal exposures
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observed. Although these findings show slight differences based on personal, discipline or school factors, they are all equivalent and call attention to the bottom-line that learner- centered education is not effectively implemented and practiced in Namibian classrooms as anticipated due to challenges and problems teachers experience in their “classroot realities” (O'Sullivan, 2002).
The problem of ineffective implementation is said to be emanating from cultural, social, political and economic backgrounds (Chisholm & Leyendecker, 2008; Schweisfurth, 2011; Vavrus et al., 2011) of both teachers and learners. According to Schweisfurth (2011) and Chisholm and Leyendecker (2008), the struggle with the learner-centered education implementation is not only for Namibia, but also for many developing sub-Saharan and African countries. For example, in Botswana (Tabulawa, 1997, 1998); South Africa (Bantwini, 2010; Blignaut, 2007); Tanzania (Saunders & Vulliamy, 1983; Vavrus, 2009); Libya (Saad, 2011); Uganda (Sikoyo, 2010) and many others, it is still experienced where it is associated with a variety of factors like teacher limited capacity, lack of teachers’ personal experiences, high learner-teacher ratios, low classroom resources and teacher cultural perspectives of teaching and learning. It has also been reported that many teachers in Namibian schools still use the traditional approach to teaching and learning (Ministry of Education, 2008, 2009) because, they were largely and mostly themselves taught through teacher-centred and didactic lecturing ways. Furthermore, the University of Namibia (2012) has affirmed that apart from learner-centred approach, too many new curriculum changes were introduced to teachers in Namibia as from independence in 1990. These unprecedented changes have created a pedagogic shock in many teachers because they were too quick and have never been experienced and implemented in their teaching contexts before. That is, the curriculum is demanding what has not been known and rooted in the history of teachers.
On the other hand, teacher educators, who are supposed to be good role models for teachers in using the learner-centered approach, have also been observed not to practice what they preach. They train and educate student teachers to use learner-centered approach, whilst they are doing it in transmissive teacher-centred ways (Nyambe & Wilmot, 2012; Vavrus et al., 2011). According to Vavrus et al. (2011), many teacher education programs mainly promote the technical rationality models than the reflective practitioner models where teacher educators do not encourage active participation because they mostly design their classes around lectures and imparting of facts to student teachers. Prospective teachers are not
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enriched with experience opportunities where they can emulate from, and thus when they go for practice, they largely draw from the way they were taught, which was teacher-centred.
In addition to the studies conducted, the Ministry of Education (2007) in its educational strategic plan, ETSIP, has admitted that the quality of education and that of its products in Namibia after 15 years of learner-centered education implementation has not yet been translated into pleasing outcome; due to teachers’ inability to interpret the learner-centred teaching theory into actual practice in classrooms. This has been testified by the reports of the National External School Evaluation (NESE) (Ministry of Education, 2008, 2009) that learner-centred approach is not well implemented; classrooms are rather dominated by traditional, didactic and inefficient teacher-centred approach to teaching and learning. Other activities observed not in line with learner-centeredness include passivity of learners in classroom interactions, negligence of learners’ learning styles by teachers, and little or no attention paid to independent and assessment for learning.
Based on this ground therefore, this study attempts to understand factors that influence teacher decisions to implement the curriculum changes the way they do. Many studies conducted have observed classroom instructions to investigate how teachers translate policy into practice. However, few studies investigate factors that impact their instructional decisions and make them do what they do in their classrooms. As Saad (2011) remarks, understanding why teachers deviate from curriculum principles is critical in providing information about teacher concerns and obstacles they face during implementation. It also discloses teachers’ subjective views regarding changes and different contexts in which they work, and subsequently illuminate prospective stumbling blocks to the implementation of new curriculum inventions and changes.
3.6 Conclusion
In this chapter the literature reviewed gives a theoretical including the empirical findings on the factors that impact on teachers’ experiences and sense-making to implement the curriculum changes. The overview from the curriculum and curriculum implementation indicates that how the curriculum is perceived and designed influences the implementation perspective thereof and consequently its expectations from teachers. It also poses the problem of the need to consider teachers’ viewpoints as informed by their life experiences, emotions and practical contexts; and arrange for continuous professional learning opportunities to orientate them to new curriculum changes. Overview from teacher working lives indicates
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that the teachers’ work is influenced by a variety of aspects, from the personal, school and broader community backgrounds. Based on this understanding, this study acknowledges that teachers are humans with historical backgrounds and emotions, who live, work and interact with others in different contexts such as home and school. Therefore, to understand their behaviour and actions better, there is a need to first understand who they are, what they have encountered in life, and how they make their judgements.
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CHAPTER 4
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
4.1 Introduction
The previous chapter presented the literature reviewed for this study. The purpose of this chapter is to outline the theoretical framework that underpins the research study. It draws on the sense-making theory by Spillane et al. (2002) to make sense of the narratives and semi- structure interviews of teachers. The fact that the objective seeks to understand how teachers interpret the curriculum policy changes and its leaning to the teaching contexts enabled the researcher locate it within the integrated sense-making framework. This framework suggests that the interpretation incorporates both the individual and the contextual aspects. As Spillane and his colleagues argue, failure to implement policy by the teachers as intended is not intentional or willful however, teachers are withheld and limited by their prior knowledge, beliefs, norms and values as well as by different factors in the contexts surrounding them. Teacher interpretation and decision-making are influenced by personal and contextual factors.
To begin with, the chapter starts with the brief history of education policy implementation followed by the perspectives used in policy implementation research over the recent decades. This is followed by the definition of the concept sense-making and the brief explanation of how sense-making and curriculum implementation are related. Next is the brief historical background of the sense-making theory and the emergence of the integrated cognitive sense- making framework which is specifically employed in this study. Lastly, the main three dimensions of Spillane’s integrated cognitive sense-making framework and their respective elements are then outlined.