EVALUACION DE LA DINAMICA DE CRECIMIENTO DEL ROBLE (Quercus humboltii)

Many studies in this literature review offer findings that underscore the need for pre-trip preparation that introduces the concept of intercultural competence, on-going reflection during the experience, and de-briefing after the IST experience in order for PSTs to develop

intercultural competence through IST programs (Johnson & Battalio, 2008; Karaman & Tochen, 2010; Mahon & Cushner, 2007; Marx & Moss, 2011; Santoro & Major, 2012; Willard-Holt, 2001). All of these studies used qualitative methods such as analyzing PST interviews, student journals, course assignments, program evaluations, and researcher field notes to study between one and fifty participants. Other studies emphasize the importance of focusing on the specifics of the reflection process itself in order to help PSTs to make sense of their cultural experience and promote the development of intercultural competence (Brindley et al., 2009; Hopkins- Gillespie, 2012; Jiang & DeVillar, 2011; Pence & Macgillivray, 2008; Sharma et al., 2011; Sharma et al., 2013; Stachowski & Sparks, 2007; Trilokekar & Kukar, 2011). All of these studies used qualitative methods such as analyzing PST interviews, student journals, course assignments, program evaluations, and researcher field notes to study between seventeen and seventy-six participants. Johnson and Battalio (2008) also administered the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) survey to ten participants before and after their IST program, making theirs a mixed methods study.

A number of studies shed light on the role program support plays in developing intercultural competence among PSTs in IST programs. Santoro and Major (2012) interviewed fifteen Australian PSTs who completed IST experiences in Korea and India ranging from three to four weeks in duration. Their findings indicate that many of the PSTs were pushed beyond their comfort zone and overwhelmed by the context of their teaching placement, particularly those placed in Indian orphanages and Indian schools for special needs children. Many of these PSTs appeared to learn very little about difference and diversity during their program. Findings suggest that a lack of intercultural competence preparation before their placement, few

opportunities for structured guidance and reflection during the program, and lack of post-trip debriefing as possible causes for this low level of learning.

Mahon and Cushner (2007) analyzed the journals and post-trip evaluations of fifty U.S. PSTs who participated in IST experiences arranged through a U.S. multi-university consortium. Study findings suggest that pre-departure orientation, structured reflections during the experience, and a debriefing related to intercultural competence are all essential to develop intercultural competence among PSTs. Furthermore, this study suggests that when this support is not in place, most PSTs fail to independently reflect on aspects of their IST unless they have an extremely good or extremely bad day. Additionally, findings suggest that PSTs who are completely cut off from program support during their IST experience have more difficulty adjusting to their IST setting than those who keep in contact with program staff. And finally, this study suggests that without reflection activities led by program staff, some PSTs are unable to make sense of negative experiences and miss cultural nuances of their IST experience.

Johnson and Battalio (2008) studied a group of ten U.S. PSTs who completed a six week experience in Scotland. In this mixed methods study, the researchers administered the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) to all participants before and after the program and analyzed journal entries. Their findings revealed that only three of the ten PSTs had post-test scores indicating growth in intercultural competence through the program, and journal entries appeared to demonstrate that many students did not recognize cultural or educational differences that they observed. These findings suggest the need for PST intercultural competence preparation before IST programs, something that participants in this study did not receive. Furthermore, PSTs in the program had little opportunity to build relationships with Scottish host teachers. Findings suggest that a productive relationship between the PST and host teacher can

help the PST to make sense of educational and cultural observations, and can be an important support to PSTs in IST programs.

Marx and Moss (2011) also found that host country nationals can play an important role in a PST’s intercultural competence development. As previously described, the researchers who designed this mixed methods study selected one PST to study over a semester-long IST in the United Kingdom through observations, interviews, and administering the IDI survey multiple times. They found that the key to the participant’s intercultural competence growth appeared to be related to the fact that she sought out an “intercultural guide” or “cultural translator” (p. 35) at her placement who helped her make sense of the cultural context of her IST experience. These findings suggest that an intercultural guide should be part of every IST program, and that the guide should have training in providing support for intercultural competence development.

Finally, Trilokekar and Kukar (2011) found that reflection that connects a PST’s individual background in terms of race, class, and gender to power structures observed in the IST placement may be essential to intercultural competence development. Through interviewing nine Canadian PSTs, this study suggests that conducting IST programs without making these intentional connections may do more harm than good, as they may reconfirm a sense of privilege that some White PSTs may feel as members of a dominant cultural group.

Overall, the studies related to this first theme appear to highlight the role program support plays in a PST’s development of intercultural competence. By preparing the PST with lessons about intercultural competence before the experience, ensuring reflection and helpful intercultural guides, and debriefing afterwards, it seems that IST programs can maximize the intercultural competence development a participant experiences in an IST program. Without

these supports, the literature reveals that the IST experience may only afford the participant limited intercultural competence development.