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According to Olivier (2009:55) and Wiese et al (2003:71), individual differences or vulnerabilities are significant on the way trauma impacts on an individual. This is because each individual constitutes a history that shaped their internal worlds, hence a unique and different individual character and personality. Individuals have their own culture, which contributes to how trauma will impact on them (Balenger 2012:2).

2.5.10.1 Individual response to trauma

There is need for an awareness of the different personality characteristics, including self-identity, world-view, level of individual spirituality, types and degrees of individual psychological needs, self-capacities, ego-resources and meanings that the individual person attributes to trauma (Gumani 2008:56). The manner and level of preparedness at which people come across traumatic events is also different. Different life experiences and personal histories all determine how one perceives and respond to trauma (Yuan et al 2010:45; Balenger 2010:2; Olivier 2009:56).

2.5.10.2 A history of prior traumatization

Police workers who experienced trauma in their child or adulthood and have not effectively dealt with it, may displace their reactions onto other people. For example, a police worker can be vengeful, very harsh on the perpetrators of crime or work tirelessly on a rape case to ensure that justice is done, especially in a case where their family member was raped, thus, keeping in mind their previous trauma (Iniedu 2011:3; Van Lelyveld 2008:12; Gumani 2012:83).

According to Gumani (2012:83), exposure to childhood trauma disturbs an individual’s cognitive schemas and frame of reference. Therefore, as the individual grow up, the traumatic experiences are re-interpreted and reconstructed. This shows the importance of effectively dealing with childhood traumatic experiences to allow for effective management of adulthood traumatic experiences. Macritchie (2006:10), in concurrence underscored that the nature of trauma an individual police worker was exposed to and how it was managed is crucial for future trauma management. Various SAPS workers have been exposed to trauma in the past and continue to interface with perpetrators

and victims of crime on a daily basis. This increases their risk and vulnerability to develop vicarious trauma and subsequently PTSD (Young 2005; Iniedu 2011:3; Macritchie 2006:10).

2.5.10.3 Underdeveloped protective skills

Skills such as self-esteem, creativity, self-efficacy, humor, discipline and problem- solving abilities need to be fully developed to reduce vulnerability to PTSD (Olivier 2009:56). People with more confidence in themselves are more likely to seek and receive social support and people with strong social support networks manage trauma effectively (Ford 2009:91).

According to Tehrani (2011:27), using ineffective coping mechanisms, such as repression, ignorance and avoidance of traumatic reactions, and substance abuse to deal with trauma and general life challenges by police workers may lead to the inability to thrive in the face of problems and trauma (Tehrani 2011:27). As a result, lack of crucial protective factors such as intelligence or education which act as protective factors that enable a person to access socio-economic resources such as information on where and how to obtain professional help, and financial affordability to pay for such services; may hamper effective trauma management (Ford 2009:90).

2.5.10.4 Individual biology and resilience

Individuals react to and deal with trauma differently. This is reflected in situations where some people are able to maintain a state of normal equilibrium in the face of extremely unfavorable conditions and are able to rebound quickly even from most tragic and shocking experiences. On the contrary, other people may be devastated by experiences that may appear to be less upsetting to others (Ahmed 2007:372). Thus, individuals exposed to traumatic events respond in different ways (Sherin et al 2011:5; Yehuda 2002:110; Ford 2009:79). For example, most people may experience minimal (seconds) to brief (hours) to short term (days/weeks) abnormalities while a smaller number may suffer from significant pathology over longer-term (months) and chronic (lifetime) time frames (Sherin et al 2011:5). Olivier (2009:56) observed that some individuals tend to appear to have over reactive nervous systems, which poses them to high vulnerability to PTSD development by over reacting to even ordinary, less traumatizing events (Olivier 2009:56).

Factors such as cultural belief systems, attitudes, positive and effective coping strategies and psychosocial cohesion have been suggested as conveying adequate protection and endorsing resilience in the face of trauma. Furthermore, resilient individuals may show insight, initiative, humor, creativity and independence, the latter largely contributing positively to buffer against traumatic stress and its effects on them (Ahmed 2007:370; Ford 2009:77).

Pietrantoni et al (2008:1) conducted a study among 961 emergency rescue personnel as first responders at traumatic scenes with the aim of examining resilience factors protecting mental health among first responders. The results identified self-efficacy, believing in one’s capabilities, self-worth, collective efficacy of working together as a team to manage traumatic encounters; and a sense of community being part of and belonging to a collective, as resilient factors that assist emergency rescuing personnel and first responders’ work-related mental health. The study concluded that resilience, following critical events, is common among first responders (Pietrantoni et al 2008:1).

2.5.10.5 Specific individual personality characteristics and their contribution to the development and management of PTSD

Various studies have shown that a majority of individuals who face potentially catastrophic trauma do not go on to develop PTSD (Jaksic, Brajkovic, Ivezic, Topic & Jakovljevic 2012:256; Ahmed 2007:370; Pillay 2008:17; Olivier 2009:56; SADAG 2009:1; Yuan, Wang, Inslicht, McCaslin, Metzler & Henn-Haase 2010:45; Sherin et al 2011:5; US NIMH 2005:1). Such individuals are considered to be resilient to PTSD development (Ahmed 2007:370). Thus, these individuals are able to maintain a state of normal equilibrium in the face of extremely unfavorable circumstances (Ahmed 2007:370).

Specific personality characteristics are at play in the development of PTSD (Yehuda 2002:110; Van Jaarsveld et al 2005:51). These include constant feelings of insecurity, lack of personal control and alienation from others. Such individuals are therefore more likely to experience higher levels of burnout, depression and PTSD subsequent to exposure to traumatic events (Cheryl, John & Graham 2000:335; Stander, Olson, Joshi, Mc Whorter & Merrill 2011:3; Grinage 2003:2405).

A study by Knoetze and De Bruin (2001) was conducted among 120 police workers to assess the role of trait anxiety in the development of PTSD. The findings indicated that

high scores on trait anxiety formed the basis of a number of criteria of psychopathology which formed an integral part of PTSD. As a result, it is likely that police candidates with high scores on trait anxiety will be more likely to develop PTSD than those with low anxiety, as individuals with low trait anxiety are generally more resistant to the negative effects of unusual situations than those with high anxiety (Van Jaarsveld et al 2007:51). According to Van Jaarsveld et al (2007:51), police officers with high scores on anxiety and neuroticism will be more prone to suffer the negative consequences of stressful events and to develop PTSD. The author noted the importance of psychometrically assessing prospective students as part of the SAPS enlistment process. The study accentuated that those with high scores on trait anxiety for operational police work and activities should not be recommended to join the police force as they will be more prone to develop PTSD (Van Jaarsveld et al 2007:51).

PTSD is considered as one of the most common and debilitating psychological occurrences in the police service (Van Jaarsveld et al 2007:52). It is also one of the biggest causes of depression, alcoholism and suicide for law enforcement officers. Therefore, appropriate prior psychological measures should be developed basing on personality and cognitive traits of prospective candidates (Van Jaarsveld et al 2007:52). Personalities are closely linked with the way people behave and handle stress and trauma. There are two personality factors; namely Type A and Type B groups of people. Type A (extroverts) personalities present an observable set of behaviors or style of living which is characterised by extreme competitiveness, impatience, hostility, restlessness, aggressiveness and a high state of alertness, while personality B people (introverts) are more relaxed and cooperative (Gumani 2012:82; Olivier 2009:60). Olivier (2009:60), in consideration of both personalities, noted that Type B personalities are less likely to suffer from stress, unless there is a specific cause, due to the fact that Type B people are non-aggressive, more relaxed, less driven, easy going, calm and tend to have a more rational outlook.

Olivier (2009:61) and Lynch (2007:6) noted further that Type A people are often driven by feelings of insecurity; frequently show behavior linked to high stress levels and are at risk of experiencing cardiovascular problems. A study by Kirmeyer and Diamond (1985:183), reported that police workers with strong Type A personality select more active coping strategies which are normally narrowly focused on the problem at hand. As a result, Type A personalities internalise the traumatic events they would have been

exposed to, which can be detrimental to the workers’ health and likely to lead to psychological ailments such as depression, suicide and PTSD (Olivier 2009:61).

Gumani’s (2012) study is of significance here. Gumani (2012:82) found that Type A police workers in the Vhembe District of the Limpopo Province used strategies that focused on confronting and dealing with situations with the goal of changing them, while Type B personality police workers reacted to stressful situations in a slow manner, deeply considering what was happening and distancing themselves from such situations.

According to Olivier (2009:57), introverted people are more vulnerable to the development of PTSD as compared to extroverts. This is because, they, in most cases, use the avoidance coping strategy, which is considered ineffective in managing trauma and PTSD, because it delays recovery.

2.5.10.6 Studies conducted on the traumatic nature of police work and its contribution to the development of PTSD

A number of studies focusing on the nature of trauma encountered by police workers and how this leads to the development of PTSD have been carried out. Young’s (2005:1) study explored alternative discourses on the experiences of trauma by the SAPS workers. The study suggested that police officers’ reactions to trauma are significantly influenced by factors other than mere exposure to traumatic incidents; aspects such as history of psychological trauma indicated that constructions of traumatic stress are strongly connected with cultural, social and political circumstances (Young 2005:1).

Another study by Tehrani (2011:26), focused on 6 police officers from three policing organisations who were specifically engaged in high-risk roles including family liaison forensics, high-tech crime, computer and mobile phone crimes, and body and firearms recovery. This kind of work exposed the chosen police workers to constant trauma on a daily basis; as a result, the purpose of the study was to assess the perceptions and emotional and psychological experiences of these workers as they engaged in their high-risk policing roles. The findings indicated ineffective administrative processes, lack of support from superiors and perceived failings of the police system, which left police officers and staff exposed to traumatising events for long periods of time without a break. For example, the system allowed over identification with victims or the families

of victims which led to the development of vicarious trauma as well as increased risk of developing PTSD (Tehrani 2011:25).

Finally, a study conducted among 68 police officers in the Limpopo Province, South Africa, revealed that nearly 10% of the participants had scores which indicated that they were likely to receive a diagnosis of PTSD (Edwards 2005:132).