Evidencia Empírica Internacional

ignorance of the entire transaction."1234'

The efforts of the Madras authorities, however, were not always in vain. In one godown, two boys were discovered; and from the doubtful account they gave of themselves, they were suspected of not being the sons of

p

the men whom they named as their fathers. This suspicion turned out to be warranted, as Madras officials learnt shortly after releasing the boys from the godown. Once well clear of it, they named their real fathers who were

sent for from their village in Tiruchirapalli (Trichinopoly). The officials believed that the boys would not voluntarily emigrate but because they had accepted advances, food and clothing, they had placed themselves in the power of the recruiters.^ While this incident corroborated Hathaway’s earlier claims about the prevalence of kidnapping, and contradicted the consistent denials from the Straits, it must be recognized that the recruiters' tactics may have required the boys' complicity. It seems that their reputed

"inarticulate ignorance and infantine superstition"^ had rendered them the compliant prey of the recruiter.

The prosecution of the keeper of the godown for kidnapping and for offences against the emigration Act

broke down. No evidence could be found that would establish the boys' correct age. Neither could it be proved they had

1 Ibid. 2 Ibid.

3 IEP, nos 1-15) September 1870 4 Ibid.

been assisted to emigrate for the purpose of labour in the Straits.^ Similarly, lack of evidence prevented a committal in another case involving a young married woman who had

been abducted. The prosecution could not prove that deceit

2

had been used to persuade her to enter the godown. Besides, the husband refrained from prosecuting under section 498 of the Indian Penal Code, which prescribed a penalty for

enticing away a married woman with criminal intent.^

Once the recruiters discovered the risk of confining recruits in godowns, they took them directly to the ships in order to circumvent the police. But this was not always successful. The Assistant Superintendent of Police at

Tanjore, investigating a case of missing children, came upon a vessel about to sail for the Straits, and gave the

following account of the incident:

I called all the little boys ... and questioned them closely as to where they were going, where their parents were, and so on. I fancied they had got their stories cut and dried ready for use for they answered satisfactorily enough and they all produced parents, uncles or guardians •••• This vessel was laden with coolies and was just ready to start when some kidnapped boys were found on board. The licence was immediately stopped and most of the coolies landed. They say the owner lost about Rs. 20,000. Serve him right. If the shipowners did not connive there would be no kidnapping.4

1 MPP, Range 439? vol. 10, 13 September 1870. 2 Ibid.

3 See the Tan.iore Gazette. 12 March 1870. 4 MPP, Range 439? vol. 10, 13 September 1870

The kidnapping of boys, as well as women, was

detected also by the Master Attendant stationed at the port of Negapatam. On several occasions, he brought on shore boys and women who at the last moment before the ship sailed were discovered by their relatives, or who had suddenly

decided against emigrating. When these were interviewed, they invariably declared that their passage had been paid for them; that they were consigned to certain chetties

(Indian money-lenders) in the Straits; and that they were under a verbal contract to labour for which they had received advances.^

For every boy, the recruiter was paid "less than"

p

the ten rupees offered for men. But despite the lower commission, the recruiters diverted their operations from men to boys. Poor boys roaming the villages would be less aware of the law, more credulous about the promised El Dorado awaiting them in the Straits, and more ready to accept

tempting offers of an immediate cash advance, food and

clothing. Besides, their domestic responsibilities, if any, would be less restraining. Moreover, it was easier for them to pretend they were going to join parents. On the estates, however, they would be less productive than men, so they would earn less. Low wages would delay the repayment of advances; this would ensure a protracted period of indenture during which the boys might develop into robust workers.

It was probably for these reasons that, as Stokes, the

1 MPP, no. 93j 24 September 1870 2 IEP, nos 1-15} September 1870.

sub-Collector of Tanjore, said: "Boys are carried off

suddenly from their village and are lost to their parents”.^ Of the number of boys emigrating to the Straits, Stokes

said he ’'roughly estimated” about five in every 100 were 2

kidnapped.

The number of women emigrating to the Straits was considerably less than that of men. Contrary to the claim made

by Vermont, the manager of the Batu Kawan estate, that a "large number” accompanied their husbands, the Colonial Secretary, Birch, said the proportion of women to men was "usually very s m a l l . I n support of Birch, the following table shows the sexual composition of passengers, including all categories of labourers, who left South India for Penang, for four years.

TABLE III:2

SEXUAL PB0P0RTI0N OF ALL INDIAN PASSENGERS PROCEEDING