Evidencias del proceso de re-constitución Episodio 1.

Current research demonstrates a multitude of reasons for developing critical thinking in learners (Tuzlukova et al., 2017; Johnston et al., 2011; Mulnix, 2010; Paul, 1990). Similarly, definitions of critical thinking (discussed on pp.38-39) informs how critical thinking is fostered gradually by developing the specific skills and capabilities (Paul, 1990). Since formal education has a higher potential for developing students’ skills and capabilities (Miri, David & Uri, 2007); focusing on the development of critical thinking becomes an aspect of formal education. In light of that, developing critical thinking is also considered an outcome of education. For instance, according to a recent survey by The Association of American Colleges and Universities (AACU, 2013); employers (93%) prioritise the importance of demonstrating a candidate’s capacity to “…think critically, communicate clearly, and solve

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complex problems” rather than the specific (subject) major of undergraduate education (p.1). The same notion has been highlighted by many scholars from different parts of the world, including Tuzlukova et al. (2017), Thakur & Al-Mahrooqi (2015), Richardson (2003), and Kurfiss (1998). In their view, the complexities of modern life demand critical thinking from today’s citizens. They argue that the innovative 21st _{century jobs are complex and}

challenging and need employees who can think critically. Hence, the implication is that developing critical thinking in education is an obligation rather than an option. The

discussion also exemplifies how critical thinking extends beyond the immediate educational context, leading to professional spheres based on the assumption of skills transfer.

Another important reason for fostering critical thinking in Omani students is to develop them into successful learners that achieve their goals of learning. Since education is the key tool to realising the economic goals of a country (Benesch, 2008); Oman focuses on the development of its economy and citizens ‘through education’ (Al Lamki, 2000). Towards this goal, the national policy of ‘Vision 2020’ was launched, outlining the socio-economic goals of the country for the next 25 years (World Finance Review, 2016; Al Lamki, 2000). The plan focuses on the key areas of,

• economic and financial stability;

• reshaping the role of government in the economy and broadening private sector participation;

• diversifying the economic base and source of national income; • globalization of the Omani economy;

• upgrading the skills of the Omani workforce and developing human resources (World Finance Review, 2016, p.59).

Under the national development plan of ‘Vision 2020’; Oman launched the policy of Omanisation, in 1996. It was an effective strategy to achieve the primary goal of creating a skilled Omani labour force that can replace the large expatriate work force. The following figures show the dire need (to employ Omanis) that existed in 1998, with an 81.8% of expatriate population dominating the Omani employment market.

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Nationality Percentage

Omani 18.2%

Expatriate (non-Omani) 81.8%

Total 100.0

Figure 2 Profile of total workforce in the Sultanate of Oman in 1998 (Al Lamki, 2000)

With intensive focus on the process of Omanisation; the Omani government established a High Committee for Vocational Training to oversee this process through a Three-Tier Strategic Framework. It included careful planning with, Tier One as

government; Tier Two as employers; and Tier Three as employees of Omani nationals (Al Lamki, 2000). Recent figures demonstrate the success of Tier One, indicating how 81.8% of expatriate workforce in the government sector (1998) has been decreased to 39% in 2014 (Romano & Seeger, 2014, p.42). However, the private sector has shown much slower progress towards Omanisation, comparatively. Despite the government’s huge efforts to promote Omani nationals within the private sector; even by 2010, expatriate workforce showed a “significant 92% of employment” as Romano & Seeger (2014, p.42) highlight. They also point out that,

Omanisation seems to become more difficult to implement in the most specialized and technical professions; the rate of Omanization in basic engineering, technical fields and specialized professions is extremely low, with rates of 13.1 percent in industrial jobs, 7 percent in basic engineering, 2.2 percent in technical fields, and 18.7 percent in specialized professions. (Romano & Seeger, 2014, p.50)

One of the main reasons for the existing differences of the employment rates is that the government sector is likely to absorb Omani nationals with a minimum of academic/professional qualifications. Contrarily, the private sector (mainly comprising foreign investors) focuses on employing qualified and experienced employees

irrespective of nationality with the intention of maintaining global professional standards (Romano & Seeger, 2014). Another reason for the differences between the employment rates is the general misunderstanding of Omanisation by many individuals. For instance, Omani students often show a clear aversion to spending four years at the university, claiming that four years for mastering a skill/s is a waste of time (Al Belushi, 2004). The implication is that since Omanis are entitled for the jobs in Oman and a government job awaits them; it is better to start on the job. Hence, a general lack of understanding about

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the concept of Omanisation may also contribute towards what Romano & Seeger (2014) highlight as an ‘unqualified workforce’ within the government sector.

The above discussion implies that though Oman’s aspirations, including the policy of training and employing an Omani workforce, are important and set for success

eventually; the success rate has been slowed because of Omani students’ lack of academic achievement rates. The dearth of Omani employees in the private sector highlights the need to examine the gaps in education so that effective measures need to be sought to remedy them. This suggests the need to equip the Omani learners with critical thinking skills at university level, preparing them for the competitive and fast-changing global job market (Thakur & Al-Mahrooqi, 2015; AACU, 2013; Richmond, 2006).

Changing economies that include changing job markets, create new jobs and those new jobs require new ways of thinking and skills (Stuart & Dahm, 1999) that the future Omani employees require. Based on Ananiadou & Claro’s (2009) work, Geisinger (2016) organises the 21st century skills into the four categories of “…cognitive, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and technical” skills (p.246). Each of the categories comprises,

• cognitive skills that include (among others): non-routine problem solving, critical thinking, and systems thinking, i.e. financial and entrepreneurial skills;

• intrapersonal skills (involving a group of metacognitive skills) that include: self- management, time management, self-development, self-regulation, adaptability, and executive functioning;

• interpersonal skills consisting of: complex communication, social skills including collaboration, teamwork, cultural sensitivity, and dealing with diversity; and • technical skills that primarily focus on: research and information fluency skills as

well as entrepreneurial skills and financial literacy. (Geisinger, 2016, p.246). The four categories of the 21st century skills show that the traditional teaching approaches may lack the potential to focus on developing these crucial skills because they (the skills of collaboration, teamwork, cultural sensitivity, and dealing with diversity) require learner-centred teaching approaches that value these concepts, fostering them within learning. Furthermore, though Geisinger (2016) has categorised critical thinking as a cognitive skill; the skills of non-routine problem solving, self-management, and self-regulation are also closely associated with critical thinking (Johnston et al., 2011; Ennis, 1996). The point is that a large portion of 21st century skills comprise critical thinking skills, indicating the

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Prioritising the significance and relationship between the 21st _{century skills and} language learning, the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL, 2011) highlights that L2 teaching has the potential to focus on the development of the 21st century skills. Based on its recent research; ACTFL organises the 21st century skills into the eleven areas of “…communication, collaboration, critical thinking and problem solving, creativity and innovation, information literacy, media literacy, technology literacy, flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social and cross-cultural skills, and leadership and responsibility” (pp.6-20). Explaining how each category includes further sub-skills; ACTFL (2011) emphasises that L2 teaching affords the incorporation of these skills into curricula and syllabi as everyday teaching practices, effectively. The need to focus on developing the 21st century skills in education makes the need to fostering them in Omani learners transparent.