Evolución asociada al curso de la enfermedad

A major issue that has been debated was the nature of a curriculum for ML. The NCS for ML (DoE, 2003a) defines ML as “life-related applications of mathematics” (p. 9), but Christiansen (2006) states that the learning outcomes and assessment standards which describe the core of the subject have been described as “distinctly mathematical” (p. 10). Hence, the NCS (DoE, 2003a) came under review again and with the most recent development, being CAPS (DBE, 2011) as part of the curriculum, the ML curriculum specifics on topics for the content and context have been clearly outlined with the emphasis now placed on progression through the grades. (DoE, 2003a; DBE, 2011)

Brombacher (2007) says the following:

I claim that the purpose of the mathematics we teach in the mathematical literacy classroom – the mathematical knowledge and skills (content) is to help us to solve problems. While we may teach certain content in a mathematics classroom so that the student can use this to develop or learn further mathematics, …

reason for learning mathematical content in the mathematical literacy classroom is to enable us to solve problems that we want to solve … (p. 14)

Brombacher’s claim is helpful in the explanation of what the basis of the ML curriculum entails (Brombacher, 2007). This is represented by Figure 6 on the next page.

44

Figure 6: The inter-related nature of mathematics (content) and context. (Brombacher, 2007, p. 14)

The aspect of the inter-related nature of the ML curriculum is clearly exemplified by Brombacher (2007). The problems of the ML classroom need to be relevant, interesting and accessible to the students taking the course. As much as the role of the mathematical content is to help us to solve the problems we want to solve, so the problems themselves – the context – plays a critical role in giving meaning to the mathematics we learn (Brombacher, 2007). The purpose of ML is to equip learners with the necessary knowledge and skills to be able to solve problems in any context that they may encounter in daily life and in the workplace, irrespective of whether the context is specifically relevant to their lives or whether the context is familiar (DBE, 2011).

What does it mean to teach and learn in the ML classroom where majority of the teachers and the learners are bi/multilingual? Such is the situation in SA, where English as the LoLT is heard, verbalised to an extent, read and written in the formal school setting only. The issues about language and learning, and language and mathematics cannot be seen as separate entities. Many studies have revealed that there is convincing evidence around the world of the positive effects on learner achievement of promoting bilingualism in education (Burkett, et al., 2001, Heugh, 2002). Research is very clear about the consequences of renouncing a child’s allegiance to his/her mother tongue (Cummins, 2000). He elaborates that strict educational policies violate the child’s right to an appropriate education and

Mathematical Content

Real-life Contexts Mathematics helps us solve

the problems we want to solve

The problems we want to solve give meaning to the mathematics we use

45

undermines communication between the child and the parent. Heugh (2002) in agreement with Cummins (1984) describes that bilingual education for each child within a multi-lingual educational policy does not mean a choice between either English or an African language, it means both.

The Thomas and Collier study (2002) on education in the United States of America (USA) included full mother tongue instruction programmes. Across all the models, those students who reached the highest levels of both bilingualism and school achievement were the ones where the children's mother tongue was the main medium of instruction. Thomas and Collier state (2002), “The strongest predictor of L2 (second language) student achievement is the amount of formal L1 (first language or mother tongue) schooling. The more L1 grade-level schooling, the higher L2 achievement was obtained” (p. 7). In this study the worst results were with students in regular programmes where the students’ mother tongues were either not supported at all or where they only had some mother tongue instruction. Their learning was mainly done in English, a language that is not the mother tongue of the students. There are several studies (Moschkovich, 1996, 1999) from all over the world that show similar related results. The results of such studies (Moschkovich, 1996, 1999; Thomas & Collier study, 2002) may be useful to our context in SA since our school programmes are not supported by a strongly implemented mother tongue instruction policy.

Due to the contextual nature of ML, it is crucial that language literacy skills such as reading, writing, speaking, comprehension and analysis be applied with the least hindrance. Since language is an integral part of the application of these skills, learning should take place in a language that the child is proficient in, hence enabling the child to clearly understand the mathematical context (Setati & Adler, 2001). It is therefore evident, that the learning that takes place in the child’s mother tongue will lead to greater achievement whilst neglecting mother tongue instruction will lead to poor achievement (Foley, 2007).

46

6. MOTHER TONGUE INSTRUCTION AND ISSUES OF BI/MULTILINGUALISM

The work of Cummins (1998) and others (Setati & Adler, 2001; Heugh,2002) in Africa, over the last twenty years has shown conclusively that neglect of the mother tongue could be one of the primary causes of poor results, high dropout rates and general academic underachievement of FAL English students. Cummins (1998) asserts that there are now numerous studies reporting “a positive association between additive bilingualism, involving maintenance and continued development of the mother tongue, and students’ linguistic, cognitive, or academic growth” (p. 3). Literacy skills such as reading and writing are best acquired through the medium of the mother tongue and if this process is disrupted at an early stage, while children are still learning the mechanics of their native language, they may never be adequately developed (Foley, 2007). These skills transfer relatively easily to FAL English, so that, in fact, proficiency in the LoLT English is in no way prejudiced by the continued development or greater allocation of time to the home language.

It has been shown by Cummins (1998) that in a number of contexts the FAL English skills of children in bi/multilingual programmes equal or exceed those of children taught through the FAL English, in spite of the amount of time spent using the FAL English (Cummins, 1998). Several other studies (Macdonald, 1991; Heugh, 2000) show similar results which shows that students who were switched from first language medium (Setswana) to English medium at the beginning of Grade 5 were not able to cope with the linguistic requirements of the system at that point.

Research done by Macdonald (1991) addressed the nature of language and learning difficulties of young African learners in South African Primary Schools. The mastering of complex, abstract or academic concepts in an inadequately known FAL English is always problematic, but, once mastered in the mother tongue, both concepts and vital cognitive skills could transfer readily and could be available for use in intellectually demanding contexts. Academic contexts are far more demanding than the more concrete, contextually supported circumstances in which everyday conversations take place, and the degree and type of skill required are very different. Language specialists, Herbert and Bailey (2002), say that academic English is from such a different foundation than the indigenous languages that there

47

is no transfer especially in the fields of science and technology. Foley (2007) explains that if the indigenous African languages are to be implemented as academic languages of learning and teaching, the standard written forms need to be “ modernised, regularised, codified and elaborated” (p. 2). Webb, Deumert and Lepota (2005) report that projects have been initiated by Pan South African Language Board (PanSALB) aimed at orthographic standardisation; lexicography and terminology development; and the promotion of literature in the indigenous languages. However, progress has not been rapid and a great deal more needs to be completed if the ideal of the African languages functioning fully as academic and scientific media of instruction in SA is to be actualised (Foley, 2007).

According to Setati and Barwell (2006), a classroom can be identified as bi/multilingual when there is more than one language in the process of carrying out activities in the classroom. Such is the case in SA, where the majority of the learners are exposed to bi/multilingual ML classrooms. Heugh (2002) provides examples of bilingualism models: The additive bilingual education model: the objective is the use of mother tongue as a medium of instruction throughout, with the official language taught at school or use mother tongue and official language as two media of instruction. The target is a high level of mother tongue plus a high level of proficiency in the official language.

In South Africa, the LiEP (DoE, 1997) promotes the principle of additive bilingualism which involves the maintenance of home language and access to an additional language. However, in practice English as LoLT continues to dominate in South African bi/multilingual classrooms, despite a progressive Language-in-Education Policy (de Klerk, 2002). In bi/multilingual classrooms the movement from formal spoken language to formal written language is complicated by the fact that the learners informal spoken language is typically in a language that is not the LoLT (Setati & Adler, 2001). Setati and Barwell (2006) highlights that by teachers having to draw on more than one language to engage the learners with activities, then in such classrooms, language diversity cannot be viewed as an asset, because it carries all the challenges that FAL English teachers and learners are faced with. Hence, the need for practices like code switching becomes imperative.

48