La exclusión de voces

In this chapter we briefly review the costs associated with transport emissions of air pollutants and carbon dioxide. We first run through the specific emissions requiring valuation, and then discuss the emission factors employed and monetary values adopted for the cost analysis. A full account of the methodological choices as well as a full synopsis of all relevant data are to be found in annex F.

4.2 Strategy and method

Table 25 lists the atmospheric emissions included in this study, their respective environmental effects and whether a distinction has been made between ‘urban’ and ‘rural’ emissions for the purpose of valuation. An appropriate decision on this latter point depends on the environmental impact of the pollutant in question. Emissions with potentially significant health effects require differentiation between urban and rural, because in the former case a greater number of people will be affected per unit emission.

table 25 Synopsis of environmental effects of atmospheric emissions included in this study

Emissions Environmental effects Urban / rural distinction ?

CO2 Forced greenhouse effect No

NOX Acidification and eutrophication

Photochemical smog formation (Æ forced greenhouse effect) Health effects

Yes

PM10 Health effects Yes

HC Photochemical smog formation (Æ forced greenhouse effect) Health effects

Yes

SO2 Acidification

Health effects

Yes

4.3 Emissions by road, rail and inland shipping Road

Our emission factors for road vehicles are based on data from CBS and the Traffic and Transport Taskforce (TTT). Besides fleet-average emissions for 2002, used to calculate total costs, in calculations for the efficiency variant we also took year-of-manufacture emission factors for 1993 and 2002.

Inland shipping

To calculate the total costs of inland shipping emissions, we used the 2002 emission data listed in the ‘Inland Shipping Emission Protocol’ [AVV, 2003]. This

Protocol, which sets out the new method adopted for calculating Dutch inland shipping emissions, identifies the following main factors as determining emissions: vessel size, waterway dimensions, vessel loading factor, river flow and direction, vessel speed and engine age. For the efficiency variant, we defined best and worst cases around these factors. Thus, the worst-case scenario is a large vessel, fully laden, sailing upstream on the River Waal. Under such conditions, average vessel speed is around 10 km/h (relative to the water). The best-case scenario is the smallest commercial vessel presently in service, unladen, going downstream, again on the Waal, giving a speed of 15 km/h. Per unit energy consumption, emission factors have been taken the same in both cases.

The Emission Protocol also reports a slight improvement in inland shipping emission factors between 1990 and 2000 as more modern engines were incorporated into the fleet. For the worst-case scenario we therefore additionally took emission factors for 1990-1994, and for the best-case scenario those for 1995-2000, both data sets as reported in the Protocol.

Rail

To compute the total costs of rail transport emissions, for freight and passenger transport by diesel train we used CBS emissions statistics, while for electric trains we calculated the emissions occurring during electrical power generation.

In the efficiency variant we took a constant figure for emissions per unit energy, as rail emission factors have likewise remained more or less constant over the past decade.

All modes

In the case of liquid transport fuels (i.e. for non-electric trains) we also included the emissions occurring during the fuel refinery and production processes.

4.4 Valuation of emissions

To assign a value to emissions of air pollutants and CO2 we used the prevention cost method, augmenting this with direct valuation of damages. Table 26 summarises the monetary values adopted. These have been taken from an earlier (2001) CE study, ‘Petrol, diesel and LPG: Balancing the environment and

economy’ a comparative analysis of international studies on emissions valuation.

table 26 Synopsis of financial values assigned to transport emissions, urban and rural (CO2: € per tonne, otherwise € per kg) Substance Value of rural emission Extra value of urban emission Total value of urban emission CO2 56 0 56 NOX 8 5 13 HC 3 4 7 PM10 78 258 336 SO2 4 7 11

Source: [CE, 2001]. Values are adjusted to 2002 price level

4.5 Synopsis of emission costs

Table 27 provides an overview of the calculated costs of CO2 emissions for all categories of vehicle/vessel for the best and worst case scenarios in the efficiency variant (€ct per vkm) as well as the total costs (in million euro).

table 27 Value assigned to external costs of CO2 emissions: 2002 fleet average (€ct per vkm) and total

(million €)

Vehicle / vessel type Best case (€ct per vkm) * Worst case (€ct per vkm) * Total costs (million €) Road Car, petrol 1.13 1.69 ₈₄₇ Car, diesel 0.97 1.37 ₂₇₀ Car, LPG 0.88 1.32 ₇₆

Local/district bus (diesel) 5.31 8.85 40

Coach (diesel) 5.31 8.85 11 Motorcycle - - 19 Moped, scooter - - 10 LGV (diesel) 1.33 1.77 293 HGV, single unit < 12 t 1.77 2.65 18 HGV, single unit > 12 t 4.42 7.96 104 HGV, tr/tr comb. 5.31 8.75 226 Rail

Passenger train, electric 12.90 50.57 24

Passenger train, diesel42 36.04 36.04 5

Freight train, electric 14.38 - 2

Freight train, diesel - 200.26 7

Inland shipping

Commercial shipping vessel 28.8 1,053.7 118

* For definition of best and worst cases, see multi-page table in section 1.6.4.

42 _{Given the limited number of diesel passenger trains, for this category we do not distinguish a best and worst} case.

Table 28 details the calculated costs of air pollutant emissions for all categories of vehicle/vessel for the best and worst case scenarios in the efficiency variant as well as total fleet costs, in million euro.

table 28 Value assigned to external costs of air pollutant emissions (NOX, HC, PM10 and SO2): 2002 fleet

average (€ct per vkm) and total (million €)

Vehicle category Best case (€ct per vkm) * Worst case (€ct per vkm) * Total costs (million €) Road Car, petrol 0.13 6.05 651 Car, diesel 0.86 9.04 496 Car, LPG 0.27 2.69 71

Local/district bus (diesel) 6.18 65.03 152

Coach (diesel) 6.18 65.03 32 Motorcycle - - 159 Moped, scooter - - 199 LGV (diesel) 1.73 18.98 894 HGV, single unit < 12 t _{3.44 23.96} 69 HGV, single unit > 12 t _{7.34 59.01} 312 HGV, tr/tr comb. _{8.69 68.73} 550 Rail

Passenger train, electric 3.71 21.32 4

Passenger train, diesel43 118.39 118.39 23

Freight train, electric 6.06 - 0

Freight train, diesel - 1,679.12 29

Inland shipping

Commercial shipping vessel 87.30 3,487.40 384

* For definition of best and worst cases, see multi-page table in section 1.6..4.

5

Costs of noise nuisance