EXIGENCIAS BÁSICAS DE SEGURIDAD DE UTILIZACIÓN (DB-SUA)

Rumble (2001) believes that distance education can meet the various professional progression needs of serving teachers so that they study as they work. In Uganda, training of in-service teachers is conducted by both public (owned by the state) and private (owned by religious groups and individuals) universities. Although these educational institutions have their own uniqueness rooted in their philosophies and mission statements, they face related challenges in providing learner support. Ouma (2003) posits that in Uganda like other African countries, universities providing distance education are faced with several problems ranging from infrastructural and financial constraints to human resources and quality enhancement bottlenecks. There is also a challenge of adopting and adapting emerging ICTs for service delivery enhancement. The discussion of the challenges faced by Ugandan universities in providing learner support hinges on those difficulties and the related opportunities for improvement.

Lack of national and institutional policy framework for distance education impedes learner support leading to supply of sub-standard services (Ouma, 2003; Stella & Gnanam, 2004).

Butcher (2010) observes that at continental level, the African Union’s efforts for tertiary education development and quality rating mechanism does not consider distance education a priority. Nevertheless, Bottomley and Calvert (2003), and Muyinda (2012) claim that with a proper distance learning policy reflecting institutional mission and value commitments, distance education can generate funds for self-sustenance and meet its goals and objectives.

Considering the situation in UK, USA and Australia, pro-active policy guidelines valuing distance education just like the traditional classroom mode have been instituted, monitored and reviewed to enhance quality of learner support (Belawati & Zuhairi, 2007). In Uganda, absence of the national policy framework for distance education poses a quality improvement dilemma in the provision of learner support.

The poor socio-economic infrastructure at national level poses a challenge to quality learner support for in-service teachers in Uganda (Ministry of Finance, Planning & Economic Development, 1998; Ouma, 2003). The economy’s level of electrification and communication network including use of computers, internet and m-learning is still limited. Several commentators (Bbuye & Aguti, 1997; Juma, 2003) argue that the insufficient commitment of funds to distance education programmes by universities makes it difficult to effectively cater

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for the learning needs of in-service teachers in Uganda. Insufficient funds limit the teacher training department’s capacity to effectively plan, organise and support the learners by providing adequate course materials, qualified staff, infrastructure and facilities, meals and utilities.

Mutonyi and Norton (2007) posit that there is limited use of ICTs such as live broadcasts and videoconferencing to support distance education students in Uganda. While referring to the state of affair on the African continent, Sife et al., (2007) raise the issue of poor and inequitably distributed information infrastructure in several universities. Research indicate that though operating costs may be low, investment and fixed costs on ICTs are high hence the need for a strong financial resource base (Rumble, 1997, 2001). In Uganda, facilities like broadcasts and videoconferencing are used where there is donor funds (Aguti, 2003; Bbuye, 2006). This shows that there is a will to use ICTs but limited by the means. Similarly, Lim, Fadzil, and Mansor (2011) in their research on mobile messaging via SMS at the University of Malaysia recognised that in Africa, efforts to use text messages were significant at some universities in Uganda and South Africa. Contrary, in a later related study in Uganda; Mayende et al. (2014) point out the limited use of simple technologies like mobile telephony for Facebook. They cite the challenge of limited access to internet, low ICT literacy levels and several students’ phones not supporting Facebook. This shows that use of modern ICTs is low in Uganda and needs scaling-up for improved learner sscaling-upport.

Basaza et al. (2010); and Mutonyi and Norton (2007) highlight the challenge of poor internet connectivity with a bigger burden on students from rural areas compared to their urban counterparts in Uganda. Similarly, Bbuye (2006) posits that in Uganda, internet facility is available at the universities and in urban public internet cafes hence not easily accessible to many in-service teachers living and working in rural villages. To improve learner support delivery, research indicates the necessity of having reliable communications and good logistics (Trindade, Carmo, & Bidarra, 2000). The limited bandwidth in most Ugandan institutions affects both staff and students’ access to the internet for research, teaching, community service, learning and general communication. With that background, universities in Uganda should consider ICT infrastructural development a priority in resource allocation to nurture a quality learner support culture.

Basaza et al. (2010) cites the lack of adequate skills and knowledge in distance education by both academic and support staff in Ugandan Universities. Similarly, several studies in the

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neighbouring Kenya and other developing countries like India have alluded the lack of supportive skills by the teacher trainers that has hampered the quality of the trainees and promoted frustrations in delivery and learning (Bwire et al., 2015; Gulati, 2008; Kishore, 2014;

Nyerere, Gravenir & Mse, 2012). The limited exposure and staff training in distance learning in Ugandan institutions could need an overhaul of the system to improve effectiveness of learner support and avoid what Tait (1989) describes as ‘living in a fool’s paradise’. Learning from Rwanda’s experience after the 1994 genocide (Mukamusoni, 2006), the government of Uganda should have an agenda to train teacher trainers and prepare them to effectively support teacher trainees physically, socially, psychologically and emotionally. (Mukamusoni, 2006).

The implication is that that impact of effective training for both teacher trainers and trainees will be manifested in effective learning of the children thereby improving on the quality of Uganda’s education system.

Inadequate preparation by the training staff to effectively manage and support the ever increasing number of students is a challenge to effective learner support in Uganda (Basaza et al., 2010; Bbuye, 2006). This is worsened by seasonal overcrowding in most universities where face-to-face sessions coincide with the traditional classroom programmes at campus creating a management support problem (Matovu, 2012). This implies a double-fold problem of big numbers during in-service teachers training, and many pupils they handle in class at the workplaces. It could be observed that universities should plan and strike a meaningful balance between theory and practice, and produce teachers relevant to the Uganda’s workplace needs.

A number of studies (Aguti, 2003; Bbuye, 2006; Binns & Otto, 2006) found much reliance on print course materials that were poorly developed and distributed to the students late in several universities in Uganda. According to Binns and Otto (2006), even in the basic course materials (modules), most of the references are derived from western developed countries. This poses a challenge of how to localise what is international on part of the lecturer, and how to internalise what has been derived from other environments and use it in the Ugandan school context on part of the in-service teacher. The influence of the colonial education system (see section 2.3) still features in Uganda’s education system. It is the responsibility of the teacher training institutions to filter what can be borrowed from other countries’ education systems to inform improvement and benefit Uganda’s education system.

Muyinda, Lubega, and Lynch (2009) found the use of traditional methods of teaching and limited exposure to learner-centred methods which limited the effectiveness of the tutoring

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support for in-service teachers in Uganda. The challenge is that traditional methods such as lecture method put the teacher in the centre of teaching-learning process instead of the student who is the intended learning beneficiary. Based on experiences of countries like Namibia, Ethiopia, South Africa and Botswana that have put emphasis on the student rather than the teacher as the key focus in instructional practices (EFA GMR, 2015c), they provide lessons for Uganda. The implication is that teaching support should focus on the student, and the teacher playing a facilitation role. This is difficult to adopt by both the teacher and student in a teacher-centred learning environment like in Uganda. Teacher training should aim at influencing change by imparting the necessary skills and knowledge intended to guide and empower the pupils to participate in their learning. Teacher training should as well impart specialised skills to manage pupils with special needs (Croft, 2010). Supporting teacher trainees to acquire specialised skills to support special needs children is crucial in Uganda where such pupils are combined with those considered normal and study in the same classroom setting.

Research has revealed lack of a two-way communication system due the limited use of ICT in learner support in Uganda (Ouma, 2003; Bbuye, 2006). The in-service teachers living and working in the rural areas usually get information when it is late either through their colleagues or travelling to the universities which is time demanding. While referring to the research study on use of mobile short messaging service to improve communication at Makerere University, Kajumbula (2009) observed that the implementation was not effective because learners from remote areas preferred traditional communication modes. It may not be a matter of preference for traditional communication methods as alluded by Kajumbula, but limited by the limited ICT infrastructure, unreliable communication network and power supply which are common experiences in rural places in Uganda. On the contrary, Makoe (2012), and Motlik (2008) argue that out of the variety of technologies used to enhance communication in distance education, mobile telephony is so readily available, affordable, and suitable for even the less privileged students in Africa and Asia. This supported by Tagoe and Abakah’ (2014) study at the University of Ghana, who found that m-learning using cell phones eased students’ access to course materials and course work, and promoted interaction among peers. The results of the factor analysis of m-learning readiness indicated substantial factor loadings >.4 on students’

readiness, attitude and perceived usefulness of using cell phones for communication and in their learning. Comparably, in another study of m-learning and communication using mobile phones in Asia (India, Mongolia, Bangladesh, Thailand, and Philippines), it was revealed that mobile phones enhanced communication and improved access to education (Valk, Rashid, &

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Elder, 2010). The common feature that cuts across the different studies is that the use of simple and affordable technologies like cell phones should be explored in different distance education environments (specifically in Uganda) as a means to improve on communication and support learning.

Munene (1997) found the challenge of poor time management by the lecturers and students in Ugandan universities. The challenge with lecturers is that most of them teach in more than one institution. In Uganda, moon-lighting is a common term used to refer to academics that teach in several institutions. This makes timely coordination of coursework and examinations setting, writing and reviewing of modules, and giving feedback on assignments difficult hence affecting quality of learner support. Majority of the in-service teachers live far from the universities making it difficult to monitor what they are doing on assignments (Bbuye, 2006).

Bbuye further observes that several distance learners report for face-to-face sessions late, fail to hand in coursework on time and yet the lecturer is duty-bound to prepare and complete the course in the specified time. Remember, much as they have to study, most students are working adults who must keep sufficient time for their work that pays the fees, and also give ample time to their families; all competing for the same time. The implication is that the trainers should adequately prepare in-service teachers on issues of time management to be able to study as they work.

Previous studies have reported that universities in Uganda find it challenging to adequately support students who live and work in different villages during field support and school practice (Aguti, 2003; Aguti, & Fraser, 2006). The training university must identify and send school practice supervisors to all the concerned students who must be supervised at least two times in each of the two teaching subjects. There is also need to send a group of monitors who are followed by a group of moderators in the field to ensure that the work of supervision is going on smoothly with all related time and financial costs. Likewise, Perraton (2000) remarks that in sub-Saharan Africa, the challenge of effective supervision of classroom practice of student teachers still lacks effective arrangement. In Uganda, the magnitude of this problem varies between institutions and is controlled as universities build their respective human capacities to manage institutional practices.

Poor reading culture limits the effectiveness of learner support in many African countries and Uganda in particular. Kaberia (2012) posits that the poor reading culture among Africans is rooted from the African culture where there is much preference for talking as opposed to

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reading which is solitary and seems to demean the social attribute of the African culture. In Uganda, Mlay, et al. (2015) attribute the poor reading culture to the forceful means used by some parents to initiate their children in reading. However, the same study agrees with Baryamureeba (2007) who found that ICT use helps to promote reading by enabling the students to have access to different reading sources. Baryamureeba (2007) further contends that he has embarked on ICT development to facilitate internet-based access to reading materials in Uganda. However, the effect of such initiatives is limited by inadequate ICT infrastructure in the country (Basaza et al., 2010; Mutonyi & Norton, 2007). The above literature reflect that research underscores the influence of technology in creating and distributing course materials and inculcating the reading culture in Uganda. The slow development of the reading culture could be in-line with the low level of ICT use in distance education in Uganda.