45.2 Types of Bibliographies
45.3 Bibliographies for Non-Book Materials 45.4 Current and Retrospective Bibliographies
45.5 Electronic Access to Bibliographic Sources and Guides to Bibliographic Databases
45.6 Bibliographic Utilities and Networks
45.7 Principles and Guidelines in Compiling Bibliographies Chapter 44 - The Development of the Book and Libraries 44.1 Introduction to Books and Its Derivatives
The most simple definition tat can be given to a book is that it is a volume of many sheets bound together, containing text, illustration, music, or other data or information. A book is portable; and is intended for circulation.
Technically, a book is a set of blank sheets of paper bound along one edge and enclosed within protective covers to form a volume, especially a written or printed literary composition presented in this way. Another definition may be that it is a division of literary work which is separately published and has an independent physical existence, although its pagination may be continuous with other volumes.
At the General Conference of UNESCO in 1964, a book was defined as a non-periodical printed publication of at least 49 pages, exclusive of cover pages. A book may contain signatures - folded printed sheets bound within a book. The term "book" is applied by extension to the scrolls used in the ancient world. In an editorial sense the word book refers to some literary works (e.g. Egyptian Book of the Dead), or to major divisions of a literary work (e.g. books of the Bible, Roman epic the Aeneid).
The early history of the modern book's evolution is accounted to ancient publication materials which includes the following.
• Scroll and volume - The scroll is a paper or parchment that usually contains writings rolled into rollers. This was an early form of manuscript.
It comprised of a number of sheets glued together to form a 20 to 30-feet long strip which was wound in a cylinder with projecting ornaments or knobs on ivory or colors, and was finished with a colored parchment cover. It was fastened by laces and were identifies with title labels called sittybus.
A volumen is a papyrus roll used by ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome.
The term volume was derived from this term. This type of scroll is written on one side with ink with a reed pen. The text is usually laid in columns, the lines of which ran parallel with its length.
• Codex - A codex is an ancient book comprised of pieces of writing materials fastened so as to open like a modern book. It superseded the scroll and volumen.
Aside from the modern book, there are also other derivatives of the book extant which are physically quite different. Included here are the following.
• Broadsheet and broadside - A broadsheet is a long, narrow advertising leaflet. It is usually a product of the long quarto (result of folding paper twice) of the sheet of broad paper from which it is cut. This may be printed on both sides. The term "broadsheet" is used synonymously with broadside - a large sheet of paper printed on one side right across the sheet. A broadside is intended to be posted up (e.g. proclamations, ballad sheets, news sheets, sheet calendars, etc.).
• Fascicule - If a certain work is issued in parts (i.e. in installments) for convenience of publishing or printing, it is known as a fascicule. They usually consist of sections or group of plates protected by temporary wrappers. They may or may not be numbered or designated as individual parts of a general item.
• Pamphlet and brochure - As defined by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1964, a pamphlet is a non-periodical publication of at least five but not more than 48 pages, exclusive of the cover pages. It also has an independent entity, not being a serial, but it may be one of a series of publications having a similarity of format or subject matter.
A special type of a pamphlet is a brochure. Literally, it is a "stitched work".
Since the term is from the French word brocher which means to stitch, It
is a short printed work of a few leaves merely stitched together, and not otherwise bound.
• Foldings - Foldings is a general term referring to printed sheets which have been folded to form sections. The following table lists the usual foldings made.
A folio relates to the format of a book. The term also refers to the individual leaf of a book, or a sheet of paper in its full size (i.e. flat, unfolded); hence, a folio ream is a ream of paper supplied flat. The largest size folio (25" x 16") is the atlas folio. The middle-sized folio between an ordinary folio and an atlas folio is the elephant folio (about 14" x 23"). This was formerly used for service books, maps, etc.
• Placard or poster - This is a large, single sheet of paper, usually printed but sometimes written on one side with an announcement or advertisement. This is for display on a wall or notice board.
Normally, the law entitles certain libraries to receive one or more copies of every book or other publication printed or published within the country for free. This is known as legal deposit or copyright deposit. The library entitled by the law to receive such items is the copyright library.
44.2 Books in the Ancient Period
During the pre-historic era, man uses pictographs and landmarks in conveying idea. Communication is more concentrated in oral than written form.
It was during the period of early antiquity (3600-626 B.C.) when the forerunners of books were used - the clay tablets and clay cylinders, which contained information written in cuneiform (any of several writing systems of the ancient Near East, for example Sumerian or Linear B, in which wedge-shaped impressions were made in soft clay). These were used by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and other peoples of ancient Mesopotamia. These people used a writing instrument known as stylus. Libraries were also born, but they are limited to the following types:
temple, government, private, and royal (e.g. libraries of Teloh, Borisppa, and Nineveh). The famous Code of Hamurabi is an example of writing produced during this period.
At around 3000 B.C., Egyptians, on the other hand, used materials that were much more closely related to the modern book - the scrolls (book rolls). These were also used by ancient Greeks, and Romans. They consisted of sheets of papyrus, a paper-like material made from the pounded pith of reeds growing in the Nile River delta, formed into a continuous strip and rolled around a stick. The text contained
in those materials was written in hieroglyphics (writing system of ancient Egypt that uses symbols or pictures to denote objects, concepts, or sounds). An alphabet which consisted of 24 consonants was used. Scrolls were tagged with the title and the author's name. Professional scribes reproduced works either by copying a text or by setting it down from dictation. Athens, Alexandria, and Rome were great centers of book production and exported books throughout the ancient world. In these societies, the royal type of library is less famous The famous libraries then were the libraries of Gizeh and Thebes. Famous writings in scrolls are Prisse Papyrus, Harris Papyrus, and Inscriptions. Phoenicains at around 2756 B.C. also developed their own alphabet that is made up of 22 consonants.
During the period of antiquity, books were owned chiefly by temples, rulers, and a few rich people. Most education at that time and for centuries thereafter, was by oral repetition and memorization. Papyrus did not last long since the material was brittle; in damp climates it disintegrated in less than 100 years. Thus, a great part of the literature and records of the ancient world has been irretrievably lost.
Some of the book rolls produced during the ancient world were made from parchment and vellum (especially prepared animal skins - parchment was from sheep skin and velum was from calf skin). These materials did not have such drawbacks. Other peoples of the ancient Middle East where papyrus did not grow had used scrolls made of tanned leather or untanned parchment for centuries. The production of parchment was improved by King Eumenes II of Pergamun in the 2nd century B.C. By the 4th century A.D., parchment had almost entirely supplanted papyrus as a medium for writing.
The 4th century also marked the culmination of a gradual process in which the inconvenient scroll was replaced by the rectangular codex (Latin, "book"), the direct ancestor of the modern book. The codex, as first used by the Greeks and Romans for business accounts or school work, was a small, ringed notebook consisting of two or more wooden tablets covered with wax, which could be marked with a stylus, smoothed over, and reused many times. Additional leaves of parchment were sometimes inserted between the tablets. In time the codex came to consist of many sheets of papyrus or, later, parchment, bound in a way somewhat similar to how present books are bound. The codex made it easier for readers to find their place or to refer ahead or back, particularly useful in the observance of the Christian liturgy.
44.3 Books in Medieval Period - Europe
In the early Middle Ages in Europe, books were written chiefly by Churchmen for other Churchmen and for rulers. Most were portions of the Bible, commentary, or liturgical books, although some were copies of classical texts. The books were
laboriously written out with a quill pen by monastic scribes working in the scriptoria (Latin, "writing rooms") of monasteries.
At first, scribes used a variety of local styles in capital letters only, a custom carried over from classical scrolls. As a result of the revival of learning initiated by Charlemagne in the 8th century, scribes shifted to capital and minuscule (small) letters, which eventually inspired the typographers of the Renaissance. After the 12th century, however, bookscript deteriorated into the black letter style, which consisted of narrow, heavily drawn, angular letters crowded close together in thin columns that were difficult to read.
Many medieval books were brilliantly illuminated in gold and colors to indicate the start of a new section of text, to illustrate the text, or to decorate the borders.
Medieval books had wooden covers, often strengthened with metal bosses and fastened with clasps. Many covers were bound in leather, sometimes richly adorned with gold and silver work, enamels, and gems. Such beautifully produced books were works of art, which, by the late Middle Ages, were usually created by professional scribes, artists, and jewelers. Books were few and costly; they were commissioned by the very small percentage of the population that could afford them and that knew how to read.
The printing of books from wood blocks, a technique probably learned from contact with the East, began in the late Middle Ages. Block books were usually religious works with heavy illustration and scanty text.
44.4 Development of Books in the Orient
Perhaps the earliest form of book in the Far East was wood/bamboo tablets tied with cord. This had been used as early as the 3rd millennium B.C. Chinese used ideographic characters in their writing system. Another early form was strips of silk/paper, a mixture of bark and hemp invented by the Chinese in the 2nd century A.D. At first, the strips, written on one side only with a reed pen or brush, were wound around sticks to make scrolls. Later they were also folded like an accordion and stitched on one side to make a book, which was glued to a light paper - or cloth-covered case. Libraries in ancient China are confined within temples alone.
In 6th century A.D., printing from carved wood blocks was invented in China. The first book known to have been printed from wood blocks was a Chinese edition of the Diamond Sutra, a Buddhist text, dating from 868. The Tripitaka, (another Buddhist scripture), which ran to more than 130,000 pages, was printed in 972.
Printing from reusable blocks was a much more efficient method of reproducing a work than copying by hand, but each block took a long time to carve and could be used only for that one work.
In the 11th century the Chinese also invented printing from movable type, which could be reassembled in different orders for numerous works. They made little use of it, however, for the great number of characters required in Chinese writing made movable type impracticable.
44.5 Books in the Renaissance Period
In the 15th century two new technological developments revolutionized the production of European books. One was paper, which Europeans learned about from the Muslim world (which had acquired it from China). The other was movable metal type (which Europeans invented independently). The German printer Johann Gutenberg pioneered the use of movable type of printing. He is also sometimes identified as the first European to print with hand-set type cast in moulds.
The first major book printed in movable type was the Gutenberg Bible (1456).
These innovations simplified book production and made it economically feasible and relatively easy. At the same time, public literacy increased greatly, in part as a result of Renaissance scholarship and exploration, and in part as a result of the Protestant Reformation tenet that every believer should be able to read the Bible.
Consequently, in the 16th century both the number of works and the number of copies of them increased enormously, further stimulating the public demand for books.
Italian Renaissance printers of the 16th century set traditions that have persisted in book publishing since that time. Among them were the use of light pasteboard covers, often bound in leather, regularized layouts, and clear Roman and Italic typefaces. Woodcuts and engravings were used for illustrations. Another tradition was the designation of book sizes as folio, quarto, octavo, duodecimo, 16mo, 24mo, and 32mo. These designations signify the numbers of leaves (each side counting as a page) formed by folding a large sheet of book paper. Thus, a sheet folded once forms two leaves (four pages), and a book made of sheets so folded is called a folio. A sheet folded twice forms four leaves (eight pages) and a book made of sheets so folded is a quarto. Modern European publishers continue to use these terms.
Renaissance books also established the convention of the title page and the preface, or introduction. Gradually the table of contents, list of illustrations, explanatory notes, bibliography, and index were added.
44.6 Contemporary Books
Since the Industrial Revolution, book production has become highly mechanized.
The more efficient manufacture of paper, the introduction of cloth and paper covers, high-speed cylinder presses, the mechanical casting and composing of type, phototypesetting, and photographic reproduction of both text and illustration
have made possible the production in the 20th century of vast numbers of books at a relatively low price. The subject matter of books has become literally universal.
While books as a means of communication have been challenged by such 20th century technological devices as the Internet, radio, television, films, and tape recorders, they remain the primary means for dissemination of knowledge, for instruction and pleasure in skills and arts, and for the recording of experience, whether real or imagined.
44.7 The Evolution of the Book and Libraries
The following table summarizes all the important events that took place along the development of the book.
Chapter 45 - Bibliographies as Sources of Information 45.1 Introduction to Bibliographies
Bibliographies are information sources that belong to control-access-directional type. The term bibliography is derived from two Greek words - biblion (book) and graphien (write). Originally, it meant the writing or copying of books. Eventually, it signified a list of books, or a critical and historical study of books and other materials. Since the mid-18th century, the word has come to mean a list of books or other forms of written material on a subject, or the technique of compiling such a list.
Formally speaking, bibliography is a systematic description of books, manuscripts, and other publications as to authorship, title, edition, imprint, and subject, and their enumeration and arrangement into lists for purposes of information.
Bibliographies are used in:
• locating materials on the subject in question
• providing means for verifying author's name, complete title of the work, place of publication, name of publisher, date of publication, edition, number of pages, price, etc.
• indicating the scope of the work and the manner in which the subject is treated, if annotated
• obtaining comments on the usefulness of certain materials, if annotation is critical and evaluative
• grouping works according to form, location, and period A bibliography has the following qualities and characteristics:
• completeness
• easy access to a part
• varied forms (systematic enumerative, selection aids, bibliography of bibliographies)
• facilitates precise identification and accurate verification of materials
• provides information about location of materials
• aids in selection of materials for the library and the library user 45.2 Types of Bibliographies
Bibliography may be divided into two broad types: analytic (sometimes called critical) and descriptive.
• Analytic bibliography is concerned with books as objects; it uses the evidence of physical features (e.g. the kind of paper and printing idiosyncrasies) to establish authorship or judge the reliability of variant texts.
• Descriptive bibliography is the systematic enumeration of publications; it is, in turn, divided into three - systematic enumerative, selective, anf bibliography of bibliographies..
The three (3) major types of descriptive bibliographies is further subdivided into more specific types, as shown in the succeeding discussions.
1. Systematic enumerative bibliographies
• Universal bibliographies - These bibliographies include everything published, issued, or printed in the fields of communication from the beginning through the present to the future. The most popular titles for this category will include Bibliotheca Universalis (4 vols., 1545-1549) by Conrad von Gesner, the known as the father of Universal Bibliography.
Another is a listing of the world's rare and noteworthy books, Manuel du libraire et de l'amateur de livres (3 vols., 1810; 5th ed., 9 vols., 1860-1890), compiled by the French scholar Jacques Charles Brunet. The British Library (formerly the Library of the British Museum) in London has so large a collection that its General Catalogue of Printed Books (108 vols., 1881-1905; reissued and updated in 263 vols., 1959-1966) can almost be called a universal bibliography. It is certainly one of the most important general bibliographies extant, as are the catalogues of the holdings of the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris and the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.
• National and trade bibliographies
o National bibliographies - A national bibliography aims to enumerate systematically works which are limited to materials within a given country. A national bibliography is prepared by a national library by requiring publishers in the country to provide
free copies of their publications, known as legal deposit. The records contained in a national bibliography must have been obtained from direct examination of the materials. Examples of national bibliography titles are:
§ Canadiana - This is the national bibliography of Canada.
§ British National Bibliography (BNB) - This is based on the books deposited with the British Copyright Office, limited to works published within Great Britain. It is arranged according to DDC with author, title, and subject indexes.
§ Bibliographie Nationale Française (BNF) - This was published since 1811, recording all titles received by Bibliotheque National (National Library of France) through legal deposit.
§ Philippine National Bibliography (PNB) - This is a quarterly publication of The National Library with annual cumulation. Since 1985, it is issued in two parts (Part 1
§ Philippine National Bibliography (PNB) - This is a quarterly publication of The National Library with annual cumulation. Since 1985, it is issued in two parts (Part 1