Morocco is situated on the northwest coast of Africa (2-14°W, 27-36°N), bordering the Atlantic Ocean in the West, the Mediterranean Sea in the North, Algeria in the East, and West Sahara in the South. Morocco gained independence from France in 1956. From 1975 to 1979 Morocco occupied the former Spanish colony Western Sahara, considering it as a province since then, which has not been acknowledged by the United Nations2.
Morocco had an estimated population of 31 million in 2007 (UN 2009)3, with 44.3% living in rural areas. Annual population growth is 1.2% and decreasing. The population is predominantly Arab-Berber, an indigenous North African group that has adopted Arab customs. Therefore Arabic is the official language, but Berber dialects prevail in rural areas and French is the language of business, government and diplomacy and is taught in schools.
Most economic activity has centered in the fertile plains and major towns near the coast (Rabat, Casablanca and Agadir) whereas development elsewhere in Morocco has been slow, encouraging urban migration. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Morocco and Western Sahara was estimated to be 73 billion $ (2316 $ per capita) in 2007. The GDPs annual growth rate is 2.2%. Primary Trade partners are the former colonial powers France and Spain; ties with the European Union have been further strengthened by an Association Agreement in 2000.
Economic output in 2008 was divided among sectors as follows: agriculture, 16%; industry, 20%; and services, 54% (CIA 2009). Even with a low contribution of agriculture to GDP, the sector still supports very large parts of the population, so that any reduction in output will have impacts on poverty and food security. Furthermore the sector is particularly sensitive to climate (Bates et al. 2008). This is portrayed by the proportion of the labor force occupied in the sectors: agriculture, 45%; industry, 20% and Services, 36% (CIA 2009). Especially in the marginalized rural areas, such as the Drâa valley, agriculture has the dominant share in economic activities. In the Drâa valley tourism is an important and growing driver of service-orientated economy.
The province of Ouarzazate has a population of 499,980 (RGPH 2004) and the annual population growth rate is 2.1% per year, being roughly twice as high than in northern
2 Refers to Security Council Resolutions 2072(1963), 3292(1974), 3458(1975) and most recent 1754(2007). In this work Morocco is referred to as in the boundaries acknowledged by the United Nations and the Federal Republic of Germany. This does not imply any political statement of the author.
3 If not stated differently, demographic, social and economic indicators are taken from the United Nations Data division: http://data.un.org (accessed: 03.12.2009)
Morocco (RGPH 2004; 1994). Due to high migration rates, lower fertility rates, longer birth intervals and a higher first marriage age the population growth is assumed to decline in the future (Rademacher 2010; Platt 2008a). Actual growth rates are 0.6% for rural and 4.1% for urban population in Ouarzazate, Skoura, Kelaat, Boulmalene and Taznakht (see Figure 3-1 for the locations of the cities). Hence the share of urban population is growing fast in the study area and with it the demand for drinking water. In 2010 a demand of 10 million cubic meters per year (Mm³/year) is assumed for the population in the urban centers. Additional 4.9 Mm³ are required by the rural population (DRPE 1998).
Figure 3-1: Urban centers and irrigated perimeters in the Upper Drâa catchment.
The primacy of drinking water to any other use is not questioned, but in terms of quantity the highest water demand in the Upper Drâa valley is that of irrigated agriculture. On average the oases of the Upper Drâa valley require 219 Mm³ of irrigation water per year (DREF Sud Ouest 2007). Irrigation water is taken from different sources: surface water and groundwater
(Heidecke 2006) as well as traditional groundwater harvesting systems, so-called khettaras (Faiz & Ruf 2010; Lightfoot 1996).
The irrigation water availability in the oases has always been variable. Traditionally agro-pastoralism, combining irrigation agriculture and transhumant livestock grazing, allows coping with low and variable precipitation (Freier et al. 2012; Barrow & Hicham 2000; Parish
& Funnell 1999). First and foremost agro-pastoralism is by its definition a diversification of agricultural activities. By relying on husbandry and crop production, with consecutive diversification on different animals and crops, losses obtained in one field of activity can be balanced out or mitigated in another field of activity (hedging). Transhumant husbandry can mitigate drought impacts by (Hazell et al. 2001):
carrying extra animals that can be liquidated during a drought, either for food or cash;
maintaining reciprocal grazing arrangements with more distant communities for use in drought years, e. g. by truck transports of livestock (Baumann 2009) ;
maintaining fodder reserves or purchasing supplementary fodder.
The crop producing sector mitigates drought impacts by (Heidecke 2009; Lybbert et al. 2009):
stockpiling grain and fodder from good years;
reducing land under cultivation;
increasing groundwater irrigation;
using fertilizers.
Furthermore labor migration, and nonagricultural labor diversification such as towards the touristic sector enables the rural population to make a living less dependent from agriculture and water availability (Rademacher 2010).
The institutional framework is actually being reshaped according to the 1995 Water Law (Ouassou et al. 2005). This law recognizes all water resources as public goods and foresees a unified water management agency for each basin, replacing parallel authorities established within the Water service (Service Eau, SE), Organization of Agricultural Development (Organisation regional de mise en valeur agricole, ORMVA) and National Drinking Water Organization (Organisation national d’eau potable, ONEP). Including participatory elements, the new structure is intended to be more decentralized and effective, once fully established.
Furthermore the law envisages the implementation of water charges to rationalize water use (Doukkali 2005).