In recent years, there has been some movement towards alternative forms of academic assessment to conventional written examinations, Child, [2001]. This desire to evolve has necessitated the advent of curriculum in England and Wales. Hirst, [1968] cited by Child
[2001] defines curriculum as ‗programmes of activities designed so that pupils will attain, so
far as possible, educational ends or objectives‘ [p. 433], ‗while Neagley and Evans propose that the curriculum process is all of the planned experiences provided by the school to assist pupils
in attaining the designated learning outcomes to the best of their abilities‘ [ibid, p. 433].
Conversely, Vygotsky argues that, in order to fully develop children, the curricula should be designed such that children are immersed in activities that emphasize interaction between learners and learning tasks. In this instance, curriculum delineates topics, concepts and skills to be taught, learning tasks and outcomes for a particular key stage/grade or age level. This makes it easy to administer standardised tests so as to check on progress as observed by Ashby and Sainsbury [2001]. For example, writing about the introduction of curriculum in England and Wales, Ashby and Sainsbury [ibid] argue:
Since the introduction of the National Curriculum in 1989, pupils have been compulsorily tested at two points in their primary school careers. At the age of seven, the end of National Curriculum key stage 1, they are assessed by means of tasks and tests that, in recent years, have covered English and mathematics only. Then at eleven, the end of key stage 2, children take tests in English, Mathematics and science. The results of these assessments are expressed as National Curriculum levels and these are based, in most cases, on a numerical score [p.1].
As can be seen from Ashby and Sainsbury‘s [ibid] statement, the aim for the National
Curriculum is to evaluate, diagnose, monitor/ check and counter balance and inform with a view to improving and raising attainment results in core subjects being offered. It is envisaged that high attainment in these core subjects would lead to better study and understanding of other important subjects. Hargreaves, [1988] argues that there is the school curriculum, which comprises of all learning and other experiences that schools plan for their pupils in each phase of education and the national curriculum then sets out the requirements to be taught in each
subject. Nevertheless, for Boaler [1997] the Education Reform Act [ERA, 1988] introduced the idea of a National Curriculum for adoption by schools. Further, Boaler [ibid] espouses
that, as a result of the imposed curriculum, schools ‗—appear to be responding to a set of
policies, emanating directly and indirectly from the Education Reform Act [ERA, 1988], that have forced them to turn their primary attention away from equality and towards academic
success, particularly for the most able‘ [ p. 576].
In 1998, the [NFER] National Foundation for Education Research was commissioned to undertake a research on target setting in England and Wales. Their aims were:
To collate various approaches to target setting where steps to level 1 and between levels
1and 3 are being developed [to include consideration of baseline data];
To design assessment criteria with steps leading to levels 1 and between levels 1 and 3
which schools can use to set targets for their pupils;
To pilot the assessment criteria as widely as possible;
To undertake case studies of schools setting targets and reviewing support in this
process from the LEA
To refine the assessment criteria following the pilot.
The above aims indicate a deliberate biased pressure aimed at raising standards of performance in education in England and Wales and that assessment is an integral part of this drive. These aims too, are directed at answering questions on curriculum and assessment and have led to so much educational research aimed at reviewing alternative curriculum and assessment models.
The Tabberer and Le Metais research, [1997] observed that, ‗curriculum and assessment are
not readily understood outside the context of the national aims for education and the
curriculum‘ [p.28]. However, on the contrary the England and Wales Curriculum Assessment
Authority QCA, [2001] contend that the National curriculum is balanced and broadly based.
The authority argues that it promotes pupils‘ spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical
development, and prepares children for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life. For instance, a closer look at The English Curriculum currently operational in English and Welsh schools reveals three strands. These strands have three components: oral
language, written language, and visual language. As can be appreciated, these strands tend to favour those who are articulate and conversant with the English language. Conversely, Apple [1979] argues that somehow, politics and values keep entering into curriculum deliberations, creating difficulties not easily dealt with under the rubrics of management ideologies. Apple [ibid] contends that the content of the curriculum continues to be a source of social conflict.
However, curriculum strands are multifaceted clusters of content and skills to be mastered at each key stage. These bring together learning to spell, correct use of syntax and writing legibly. In addition, the Curriculum Assessment Authority [QCA] [ibid] contends that it includes religious education for secondary pupils, as well as sex education which prepare students for adult life outside schooling days. The QCA however, further argue that although the curriculum does not constitute the whole curriculum for schools, it applies to all pupils aged 5-16 in maintained schools. As it stands now, English and Welsh schools have discretion to develop the whole curriculum to reflect their particular needs and circumstances.
The report also compared English and Welsh curriculum with other countries and established that, some countries have controlled curriculum while others favoured the national or federal systems e.g. Canada and USA. Where as some countries regulate their curriculum and assessment frameworks, such countries as New Zealand and Hungary have national monitoring of performance by pupil samples. Nevertheless, in England and Wales, education model defines knowledge and skills, minimum levels of attainment at certain stages, the Singapore curriculum defines topics, skills learning tasks and activities and learning outcomes. Compared with other countries, it appears, UK pupils are subjected to assessment from the on set of their education right through their primary education and into the secondary stage.
Firstly, they have the baseline assessment covering basic speaking and listening, reading, writing, mathematics and personal and social development. Then pupils are subjected to Key stage tests or other forms of assessment as discussed earlier. The Tabberer and Le Metais report [1996] noted that cross-curricular themes that were not associated with statutory delivery or public assessment were being implemented internationally.
Although there are differences between countries‘ curriculum and assessment frameworks,
there are some commonalities in the aims and objectives. The most commonly articulated aims were in the areas of developing the capacity of the individual, promoting equal opportunities, preparing young people for work, providing knowledge, skills and understanding to mention but a few. But, one does not see these commonalities catering for strugglers in learning, since the focus is now on high-stakes.
3.2.0. Assessment
3.2.1. Definitions
There are numerous acceptable definitions of assessment. For Ysseldyke [1995], assessment is defined as:
...the process of collecting data for the purpose of making decisions about students. Assessment by teachers is a judgement or observations of students having difficulties acquiring or retaining behavioural or academic skills. Or it could be that the student needs assistance eliminating difficulties[p.5].
And for Chid [2001], assessment is defined as,
‗an omnibus term which includes all the processes and products which describe the nature and extent of children‘s learning, its degree of correspondence with the aims and
objectives of teaching and its environments which are designed to facilitate learning [p. 357]
Child [2001] contends that assessment can be in the form of observations, conversations [formal or informal], tests and class or public examinations. Informal assessments are teacher initiatives during normal class learning and formative judgements, while formal assessment is often made at times set aside specifically for the purpose of testing such as in examinations. However, assessment should be designed to improve learning and achievement.
Similarly, the Scottish Office Education Department [1991a] argue:
Assessment is an important and integral part of the learning and teaching process. [p. 4]…Assessment occurs mainly on a day-to-day basis…Assessment as an integral part of learning and teaching involves attention to four concerns: clear teaching and learning, aims, motivation, previous experience and present abilities, effective tasks and flexible teaching methods. [p. 12]
Thus, according to Scottish Office Education Department [SOED] [1991a], ‗feedback should
‗help pupils to identify what they have learned, what they still have to learn and their next steps in learning‘ [p. 16].