Resumen
I. I TRODUCCIÓ
3.2. Factores de riesgo para convertirse en víctima o agresor
Proportion of Workforce Who are Women, by Occupation, 1998-2012
Chemists Chemical Engineering
All Engineering Mechanical Engineering
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engineering, as indicated in Figures 4f and 4g. Prism showed an over-representation relative to the bachelor's degrees earned and workforce population, where they averaged 19.3% and 13.6% over the decade 2002-2012, respectively. Prism may have over-represented women since it had a history of encouraging women and girls into engineering. Their "Engineering Go For It" (eGFI) program for girls was advertised extensively in each issue analyzed. In addition, ASEE (Prism's publishing professional society) is the premier professional society of engineering educators. The extensive efforts of engineering educators to encourage women into engineering included articles and front-cover visuals in Prism and scholarship presented in ASEE's peer-reviewed journal, Journal of Engineering Education (JEE). ASEE was more selective about its representation of women in their culturally pervasive trade journal (Prism).
C&EN represented chemistry and chemical engineering, two fields that were higher in numeric
representation of women in education and the workforce than the other fields in this study (Figures 4f and 4g). C&EN's representation of women at 27.2% fell short of reflecting their chemistry's educational proportions (Figure 4f) and appeared to largely fall between the chemistry's and chemical engineering's workforce populations (Figure 4g). Thus, Prism and Mechanical Engineering over-represented women and C&EN approximated their female chemical engineering proportions relative to their practicing
populations.
Women's profiled quantitative representation in each trade journal through the 15 years was plotted in Figure 4h, where Mechanical Engineering showed the largest improvement over time at an average increase of 1.77% in the proportion of women per year. This trade journal had the most room for improvement since it started at zero percent in 1998 and 2000. Prism showed women more frequently at an average of 32.9%, though this varied over time.
4.3.1 Categories
The following paragraphs of discussion of results were labeled to correspond to row numbers in Tables 3c and 4e - 4j with logged-odds models included in cases of significant results. Symbols of
significance were included in the discussion when it was not possible to include in the tables. Graphs of trends were also included in those cases where significance was determined.
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Figure 4h. Women's frequency of data in each trade journal during 1998-2012. Trendlines for each curve were plotted to demonstrate average linear changes over time.
A : Hierarchy displayed in body behaviors included coded values of neutrality, engagement, and working, which all aligned with profiled gender proportions. These values were hierarchal when compared with each other since they were coded according to increasing activity (i.e. decreasing passivity); women were expected to be over-represented portraying more passive behaviors. The data showed men were slightly over-represented in neutrality in editorial images and slightly under-represented as working in ad images, which defied expectations of hierarchy. Women were over-represented in neutral behavior in Prism and Mechanical Engineering and in depictions of them working in C&EN. Women were
under-represented (and men were over-under-represented) in working in Mechanical Engineering. Women were shown actively working in 10% of images with women; whereas men were shown working in 25% of images with men.
Stereotypical feminine behaviors, where women were culturally considered dependent and needy, were analyzed along with stereotypical masculine behaviors, such as aggression and athleticism.
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Proportion of Women Profiled in Each Magazine, 1998-2012
Prism * ME ** C&EN *
Linear (Prism *) Linear (ME **) Linear (C&EN *)
Trendline Equations:
y (Prism) = 0.007x - 13.754 y (ME) = 0.0177x - 35.292 y (C&EN) = 0.0098x - 19307
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There were too few instances of needy or dependent and aggressive behavior to credibly report gendered trends. There was more equality of athletic representation relative to population proportions since women and men were shown doing sports in 15% & 20% of their images, respectively.
B & C: When higher or taller men than women were found within the same image (i.e. 'height'), 53.7% were in ads and 46.3% were in editorial content**. Prism showed height evenly between ads and editorial content**. Mechanical Engineering showed 82% of demonstrations of height in ads, and 18% in editorial material*. Of the instances of men larger than women in the same image (i.e. 'size'), 59.0% were in ads and 41.0% were in editorial content**. These findings showed advertisements used height and size in visual superiority over women.
Height and size were not included in Tables 4e-4h since they were not applied to every profiled subject. These categories were only applied when an identified man and woman (at least one of each) were in the same image. This meant that often a group of people was being profiled, yet the code of height and data was applied to one of those subjects randomly. Thus, an application of height and size responses was not linked to the one subject profiled on the same line of data. The analysis of height and size with the type of content was valid since the variables applied to the type of visual (ads, editorials, and each trade journal).
D: Of the gazes displayed, 46.5% were to the side or down relative to the camera perspective and subjects were looking directly into the camera 39.8% of the time. Subjects looked above the camera 63 times (3.8%). Women were shown represented looking upward in C&EN. Men were
over-represented in direct gaze at the camera in Prism and C&EN.
Figure 4i indicates women gazed upward in large proportions between 2005-2010. This upward look was reminiscent of a visionary and was positively regarded (Goffman, 1979). Women's direct gaze held steady near population proportions.
E: Shoulder direction included frontal facing and oblique, where shoulders were 45° or more away from the camera. Men were found in frontal positions (61%) more often than oblique positions (38%) in editorial content. Yet women were found in these two positions nearly equally (43% and 56%,
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respectively) in editorial content. Men were shown under-represented in shoulders positioned obliquely in C&EN.
Figure 4i. The proportions of gazes performed by women. Direct gaze indicated the subject's line of sight was into the camera, and looking above the camera was considered an upward gaze.
F : Hands touching self was defined as hands touching the subject's own face or own hands as signs of insecurity or vulnerability. In editorial content, women were over-represented and men were under-represented in these features in 13% of women's and 6% of men's editorial images. Prism and Mechanical Engineering reflected these same trends. These findings supported the stereotype of
women's use of hands to represent vulnerability (Goffman, 1979).
Hands on the hips implied power and confidence; 5% of women and 3% of men were depicted in this authoritative manner in editorial content. While women were portrayed vulnerably proportionately more frequently than men, they were also shown in powerful positions with more proportionate frequency.
The logged odds equation indicating the effect of hands in portrayals of vulnerability (i.e.
decreasing values of 'hands') increased with decreasing gender (i.e. a female subject) and with earlier issues of trade journals. The opposite effect of shifting gender to male improved the odds of increased
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