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The International Encyclopaedia of Adult Education and Training (1996:519) defined training as the provision that is aimed at creating intentional learning processes that contribute to improving the performance of workers in their present job. The definition does not differ significantly from definitions of training in the HRD context. For instance, in an HRD environment, training is often defined as a planned learning experience designed to bring about permanent change in an individual.’s knowledge, attitudes, or skills (Campbell, Dunnete, Lawler & Weick 1970:497). Goldstein (1992:3) provided a definition that related training to individual performance which is, arguably, a more apt descriptor of HRD objectives. He defined training as the systematic acquisition of attitudes, concepts, knowledge, roles or skills that result in improved performance at work. Generally, it has been found that most workplace training definitions in the international literature emphasise the current job as the focus. For instance, Tziner, Haccoun and Kadish (1991) noted that the fundamental purpose of training is to help people develop skills and abilities which, when applied at work, will enhance their average job performance in their current job. The definition provided by Tziner et al. (1991) links the acquisition of knowledge and skills gained through training to an application in the workplace. This link represents the concept of training transfer.

Transfer of training is generally defined as the degree to which trainees apply the knowledge, skills and attitudes gained in training to their job (Ford & Weissbein 1997; Tannenbaum & Yulk 1992; Wexley & Latham 1991). Most researchers used the terms ‘transfer of training’ and ‘transfer of learning’ interchangeably to refer to the application of the knowledge and skills learned in training back to the job. The

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application of these skills has also been described as an ongoing exercise rather than a once-off task. In this sense, transfer of training has been described as the maintenance of skills, knowledge and attitudes over a certain period of time (Baldwin & Ford 1988).

Transfer of training needs to be considered as a multidimensional construct because different authors view transfer of training differently, attributing a variety of features to its definition. For example, Wexley and Latham (1991) suggest that transfer can be measured as a positive, negative or a zero. Positive transfer occurs when learning in the training situation results in better performance on the job. This reflects the general assumption behind most definitions of transfer of training. Negative transfer occurs when learning in the training situation results in poorer performance on the job. Zero transfer, not surprisingly, occurs when learning in the training situation has no effect on the job performance.

Other researchers have provided different insights into transfer of training. For example, Cormier and Hagman (1987) considered it to consist of two elements: general or specific transfer. On this view, general transfer refers to the application of learned knowledge and skills to a higher level or to a more complex work situation. It occurs when a trainee has grasped the generic skills or concepts and generalised their application (for instance, problem solving). Specific transfer occurs when the trainee can apply what has been learned in the training environment to a similar work situation (for instance, learning to use a word processor in training with application of that learning at work).

Finally, Laker (1990) proposed a distinction between near transfer and far transfer in a training context. According to this author, near transfer occurs when trainees apply what was acquired in training to situations very similar to those in which they were trained. Far transfer, in contrast, occurs when trainees apply the training to different situations from the ones in which they were trained.

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Regardless how the transfer of training elements have been described, there has been general agreement amongst researchers that transfer of training is a critical issue in HRD. For instance, Baldwin and Ford (1988), in their early model of the transfer process provided HRD researchers and practitioners of organisational training with an understanding of the range of factors affecting transfer of training include a range of trainee characteristics, the training course design and the type of work environment. Further, many researchers in this area have emphasised that any effort taken to evaluate training effectiveness must look for these elements of transfer of training (Broad & Newstrom 1992; Kirkpatrick 1994; Noe 2005; Noe et al. 2004). According to Bates (2003), training can do little to increase individual or organisational performance unless what is learned as a result of training is transferred to the job. The gap between what is learned and what is applied on the job represents, at least in HRD terms, a massive transfer problem (Baldwin & Ford 1988; Broad & Newstrom 1992; Ford 1994). In one study, Broad and Newstrom (1992) surveyed 85 trainees and asked them how much of the material learned was used on the job over time. The responses were: immediately – 41 percent; six months later - 24 percent; and one year later – 15 percent. Broad and Newstrom (1992) also noted that the lack of involvement of line managers and the lack of reinforcement on the job were major barriers to the transfer of training. Not surprisingly, it has been reported in the literature that a mere of 10 percent of the investment in training is returned in performance improvement (Garavaglia 1993; Georgenson 1982).

Despite the reported problems in achieving effective transfer of training reported in the international HRD research, the training and development of employees continues to be viewed as a key strategy for organisations to gain a competitive advantage (Goldstein 1992; Noe 2005; Wexley & Latham 1991). One factor which stands out in the literature as a contributor to more effective transfer has been the extent to which trainees are motivated to use their training on the job. The next section considers the research on motivation to transfer training.

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