Fase 1: Diagnóstico inicial

The translation of language is not just the transposition of words, but movement between cultures (Bassnett & Lefevere, 1998). A wide variety of translation techniques are available to the translator, and some even see translation as an art. The skills (awareness and willingness) of the translator and proofreader – linguistic, cultural, and personal factors – direct the accuracy and quality of the final product. The translator is required to hold knowledge of the source and target languages and cultures; translation skills and techniques; and related ethical consideration. It is ethically necessary for the translator to:

1. Be aware of the complexity of the translation process.

2. Be aware and tolerant of ambiguity.

3. Be aware of and willing to use a spectrum of translation techniques.

4. Be willing to indulge in lateral thinking.

5. Use intuitions that have been systematically validated.

6. Insist on precision, both of the translation and proofreading.

Translators use direct translation techniques when transposition of structural and conceptual elements of the source language to the target language is possible. Such techniques include (Interpro):

1. Borrowing – words taken directly from the source language to the target

language without translation, e.g., kaizen used as kaizen.

2. Calque – a phrase borrowed from source language and translated word-

for-word, e.g., kaizen translated as “change for the better.”

3. Literal translation – when word-for-word translation is possible across

languages due to grammatical structure, e.g., kaizen as kai “change” and zen as “virtuous” to become “virtuous change.”

Translators use oblique translation techniques when direct translation of structural or conceptual elements of the source language to the target language is not possible

without altering meaning or upsetting the grammatical and stylist elements of the target language. Such techniques include (Interpro):

1. Transposition – change of word sequence due to required position of

word categories in target language.

2. Modulation – use of a phrase that is different in the source and target languages, used to convey the same idea.

3. Equivalence – expressing the source language meaning in a completely

different way through idioms, proverbs, and lexical terms.

4. Adaption – expression of target language is very different to source, often

used when there is shift in cultural environment.

5. Compensation – used when something is not translatable, particularly in

reference to nuance and formality.

To provide accurate target language translations, the translators utilised a multitude of techniques, as outlined above, while working within an accepted ethical framework. Borrowing techniques were utilised when use of the source language Japanese word allowed the author to create more than just literal meaning, e.g. the use of the word “kaizen.” As it is one of the objectives of this thesis to develop the meaning of kaizen in its true essence, the translation of kaizen to the common usage continuous improvement may create an atmosphere of systemised vision created from predetermined definition of the two words, and definition developed by Anglosphere literature. Calque and literal translation techniques were utilised, namely in the translation of names and titles. When translating sentences from the Japanese to English languages, transposition is necessary due to the differing grammatical structures of both languages; they are literally grammar-order opposite to each other with the exception of the subject. The translation process kept the use of modulation, equivalence, adaption, and compensation to a minimum, as it was possible to utilise other techniques.

The Translation Process

The translation process for hardcopy and electronic formats:

1. Reading and understanding of original text by primary and secondary

translator.

2. Confirmation of content and context between primary and secondary

translator.

3. Development of keyword list.

4. Confirmation of keyword definitions, undertones, and context between

primary and secondary translator.

5. Draft translation of source language to target language material.

6. Second draft of target language material.

7. Reverse translation of second writing from target language to source

language.

8. Confirmation of accuracy between primary and secondary translator.

9. Final writing to target language.

10. Final confirmation between primary and secondary translator.

The translation process for audio format:

1. Listening to audio track by primary and secondary translator.

2. Confirmation of content and context between primary and secondary

translator.

3. Development of keyword list.

4. Confirmation of keyword definitions, undertones, and context between

primary and secondary translator.

5. Draft translation of source language to target language material35.

6. Second draft of target language material.

7. Reverse translation of second writing from target language to source

language.

8. Confirmation of accuracy between primary and secondary translator.

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9. Final writing to target language.

10. Final confirmation between primary and secondary translator.

Accuracy of Translation

A professional translator (neither primary nor secondary translator) in Japan proofed a sample of translated material, and feedback and recommendation was received. Differences in meaning and nuance were negligible.

Qualification of Primary and Second Translator

The primary translator (the DBA candidate) is a native English speaker who has resided in Japan for more than 20 years. He holds a Master of Commerce degree from a Japanese university where coursework was conducted, and final dissertation was published in Japanese. After graduation, the candidate undertook project work assignments at several name Japanese corporations where day-to-day routines were conducted in both English and Japanese.

The secondary translator is a Japanese national who has more than 15 years senior- position foreign government diplomatic experience, and is fluent in the English language.

Doing Cross-Cultural Research

Discovery of and utilizing commonalities such as language and culture between the candidate and research participants provides for added rigour to this research. Although this does not guarantee rigour per se, demonstration of the researchers awareness will. In the case of this research project, beyond effective data capture, “translation and interpretation…[was seen to provide] facilitate rigorous cross- cultural research” (Irvine et al., 2008, p. 36). To provide culturally competent research methodology (Kitayama & Duffy, 2004), both language and cultural awareness by a researcher and supporting translators is paramount, and can provide

insightful interpretation of captured data. Analysis of the translators’ auto- ethnographies provided for identification of balancing constructs. Specifically, these were:

Primary Translator: Secondary Translator:

New Zealander Japanese

Worked in Japanese companies Worked for foreign governments

English first language Japanese first language

Japanese second language English second language

Fluent in second language Fluent in second language

This ensures the primary and secondary translators are sufficiently cross-culturally and linguistically competent to undertake the required translation function for this research, and final thesis.

Lost in Translation

In normal terms, the phrase “lost in translation” implies loss of meaning, emphasis, or emotion during movement from source to target language. In other instances, it may include an equivalent loss when moving from source to target culture. Any incidences of loss resulting from translation techniques employed or the ability of the translation team are seen to be minimal. Further, participant incidences of loss too appear to be minimal. What also needs to be contemplated, as is done here, is loss in translation that may occur when the participant is articulating their tacit knowledge.

Chapter Two notes that the Japanese language is holistic in nature and open to interpretation. In this research, participant responses occasionally consisted of set phrasing, and at other times, longer articulated explanations. In order to counter the occurrence of lost in translation, participants were furnished with the questionnaire prior to data collection, and were provided ample time to deliver their responses during collection meetings. Occasionally, when responding in English and facing linguistic barriers, participants reverted to their native Japanese; on rare occasions,

when responding in Japanese, participants switched to English as a means to respond.