S UMMARY
The goal analysis process is begun only after you have a clear statement of the instructional goal. The first step in the goal analysis process is to classify the goal into one of the four domains of learning:
an attitude, an intellectual skill, verbal information, or a psychomotor skill.
The second step in goal analysis is to identify the major steps that learners must perform to dem-onstrate they have achieved the goal. These major steps should include both the skill performed and relevant content, and they should be sequenced in the most efficient order. For intellectual skill and psychomotor goals, as well as most attitudes, a
sequential diagram of the steps to be taken is appro-priate. An analysis of verbal information will usu-ally result in a set of topics that can be organized by chronology or by other inherent relationships such as parts of a whole, simple to complex, or familiar to unfamiliar. Remember that perfect frameworks of skills required for a goal are rarely created on the first attempt. Your initial product should be viewed as a draft and should be subjected to evaluation and refinement. Specific problems to look for during the evaluation include steps that are not a natural part of the process, too small or too large, or misplaced in the sequence.
R UBRIC FOR E VALUATING A G OAL A NALYSIS
The following summary rubric can be used to evaluate the quality of your instructional goal analysis. It contains sections for rating the main steps, the diagramming strategy, and other criteria you may identify for your project.
Designer note: If an element is not relevant for your project, mark NA in the No column.
No Some Yes A. Steps Statements Is/are the ___ ___ ___ 1. Verb (behavior/action) included?
___ ___ ___ 2. Outcomes visible/observable?
___ ___ ___ 3. Content focused/clear?
___ ___ ___ 4. Steps focused on learner actions rather than trainer/teacher actions?
Feedback 57
___ ___ ___ 5. Size chunks comparable in scope, appropriate for learners?
___ ___ ___ 6. Steps important/main step in goal?
___ ___ ___ 7. Relationships between/among steps clear?
___ ___ ___ 8. Relationships among steps reflected in the sequence?
___ ___ ___ 9. Redundancy among/between steps avoided?
___ ___ ___ 10. (Other)
B. Diagramming Is/are the
___ ___ ___ 1. Main steps placed in boxes, left to right on page?
___ ___ ___ 2. Decision points illustrated by a diamond, question, and branch answers (e.g., yes, no) with arrows illustrating next step?
3. Sequencing clearly illustrated with ___ ___ ___ a. Arrows between steps?
___ ___ ___ b. Numbering system for main steps indicating flow?
___ ___ ___ c. Pairs of matching circles with matching letters for breaks in lines?
No Some Yes C. Other ___ ___ ___ 1.
___ ___ ___ 2.
The final product of your goal analysis should be a diagram of skills that provides an overview of what learners will be doing when they perform the instructional goal. This framework is the foundation for the subordinate skills analysis described in Chapter Four .
P RACTICE
1. Table 3.3 contains a list of learning domains and instructional goals. Read each goal in column two and classify it using the learning domains listed in column one. Space is provided in col-umn three for you to write the rationale you used to classify each goal.
2. On separate sheets of paper, identify and se-quence the major areas of activity implied by instructional goals 1, 2, and 3 in Table 3.3 .
3. On a separate sheet of paper, identify and sequence the major steps implied by the following instruc-tional goal: In written composition, (1) use a variety of sentence types and accompanying punctuation based on the purpose and mood of the sentence and (2) use a variety of sentence types and accom-panying punctuation based on the complexity or structure of the sentence. Use the rubric to guide and evaluate your work.
t a b l e 3 . 3
Classify Instructional Goals by Learning Domain
Learning Domain Sample Instructional Goal Rationale A. Psychomotor Skill ____ 1. Name parts of the human body
using common terminology.
B. Intellectual Skill
____ 2. Separate an egg yolk from the egg white, using the shell as a tool.
C. Verbal Information
____ 3. Choose to behave safely while flying on airplanes.
D. Attitude
F EEDBACK
1. Compare your work with the examples pro-vided in Table 3.4 .
2. Compare your decisions about what constitutes the major steps and sequences for each of the three
instructional goals listed in Figures 3.8 through 3.10 . Your analyses will be slightly different from ours because there usually is no one way to analyze the steps in a goal, and the wording always varies.
The second goal, naming parts of the human body ( Figure 3.8 ), does not have a chronology of events that can be used to develop a logical framework. An organizing method must be identified that enables us to cluster or group information in a logical manner. We chose to organize the content using a “parts of a whole”
plan (i.e., main areas of the body). We then se-lected a sequence for the areas by moving from the top to the bottom—for example, head, arms,
hands, trunk, legs, and feet. Note that the words are not connected with arrows because these are not sequential steps that must be performed.
The psychomotor skill required to crack an egg and separate the yolk from the white ( Figure 3.9 ) has a natural sequence of events. The shell cannot be pulled apart until it is broken, and the egg white cannot be separated until the shell is pulled apart. Like most psychomotor tasks, this one requires practice. The only way your mind
t a b l e 3 . 4
Feedback for Classifying Instructional Goals
Learning Domain Sample Instructional Goal Rationale A. Psychomotor Skill
Requires associating a name with a part of the body. Each part of the body has one name. It does not require any-thing but recalling labels or names.
A 2. Separate an egg yolk from egg white, using the shell as a tool.
Requires mental planning and accu-rate translation of mental plans into physical actions.
D 3. Choose to behave safely while flying on airplanes.
Behavior implies an underlying attitude about safety.
Name parts of the:
1. Head 2. Arm 3. Hand 4. Trunk 5. Leg 6. Foot
f i g u r e 3 . 8
Goal Analysis for a Verbal Information Skill
Goal: Locate and label various parts of the human body.
Goal Analysis for a Psychomotor Skill
Goal: Using the shell as a tool, separate an egg yolk from the egg white.
References and Recommended Readings 59
Goal Analysis for an Attitudinal Skill
Goal: Choose to follow safety precautions while traveling on airplanes.
R EFERENCES AND R ECOMMENDED R EADINGS
Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Kruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R. E., Pintrich, P. R., Raths, J., Wittrock, M. C. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Bloom, B., Englehart, M., Furst, E., Hill, W., &
Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objec-tives: The classification of educational goals: Handbook 1:
The cognitive domain. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman.
Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2013). Scenario-based e-learning: Evidence-based guidelines for online work-force learning. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Includes a good example of cognitive task analysis in profes-sional and technical training.
Crandall, B., Klein, G., Hoffman, R. R. (2006). Working minds: A practitioner’s guide to cognitive task analysis . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Gagné, R. (1985). Conditions of learning (4th ed.). New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. A classic re-garding many aspects of instructional design, includ-ing the domains of learninclud-ing and hierarchical analysis.
Gagné, R. M., Wager, W. W., Golas, K. C., & Keller, J. M. (2004). Principles of instructional design (5th
ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
Provides a number of examples of the application of instructional analysis to intellectual skills.
Hackos, J. T., & Redish, J. C., (1998). User and task analy-sis for interface design . Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Jonassen, D. H., Tessmer, M., & Hannum, W. (1999). Task analysis procedures for instructional design. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Excellent over-view and “how to” guide to instructional design applications of a wide range of techniques for in-structional analysis. This book is currently available as an e-book through netLibrary.
Jonassen, D. H. (2011). Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing problem-solving learning envi-ronments . New York, NY: Routledge.
Loughner, P., & Moller, L. (1998). The use of task analysis procedures by instructional designers.
Performance Improvement Quarterly, 11 (3), 79–101.
Mager, R. (1997). Goal analysis: How to clarify your goals so you can actually achieve them. Atlanta, GA: The Center for Effective Performance.
Mellon, C. (1997). Goal analysis: Back to the basics. Tech Trends, 42 (5), 38–42.
can tell your hands how hard to tap the shell or how fast to pour the yolk is to practice the skill.
Incorrect estimations and translations result in squashed shells and broken yolks.
The instructional goal on airplane safety ( Figure 3.10 ) has a sequence of sorts that does help with this goal. Carry-on items are stored
and then attention is given to safety announce-ments. The announcements help in locating safety features on the plane. Then it is neces-sary to keep the seatbelt on and to limit one’s alcoholic intake.
3. Compare your goal analysis for writing sen-tences with the one located in Appendix B .
Revise Instruction
Analyze Learners and Contexts Identify
Instructional Goal(s)
Write Performance Objectives
Develop Assessment Instruments Conduct
Instructional Analysis
O b j e c t i v e s
➤ Describe approaches to subordinate skills analysis including hierarchical, procedural, cluster, and combination techniques.
➤ Describe the relationships among the subordinate skills identified through subordinate skills analysis, including entry skills.
➤ Apply subordinate skills analysis techniques to steps in the goal analysis and identify entry skills as appropriate.
61 Design and
Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction Develop
Instructional Strategy
Develop and Select Instructional Materials
Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation