Once, tourism was perceived as a clean industry or smokeless industry. The environmental issues of tourism were first mentioned in 1967 at the conference on “Ecology, Tourism and Recreation” in Switzerland (Hashimoto, 2000). Since then there has been a growing sensitivity to tourism environmental issues, and the awareness of environmental impacts due to tourism has grown significantly. Many researchers have questioned the nature of environmental impacts, such as Plog in 1972, who questioned: “does tourism create the seeds of its own destruction?” Brackenbury (1993, p.17) argued that “the end of environment is the Table 2.4 Negative social-cultural impacts of tourism summary
Negative social-cultural impacts Findings Researchers Increase traffic congestion,
Affect traditional family values Local residents will change their value systems by
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end of tourism”; Glasson, Godfrey, and Goodey (1995, p.7) stated, “Tourism can kill tourism, destroying the very environment attraction which visitors come to a location to experience”.
With the expansion of world tourism, there is an increased threat to the environment, particularly if it is not well-planned and managed. If tourism destroys the environment of a country, then tourists will no longer have a reason to visit it (Beladi et al., 2009). Those statements and similar others identify the growing importance of assessing tourism impacts on the natural environment. Liu, Sheldon and Var (1987) suggested that the “…environment should be ranked higher than cultural benefits, social costs, and even economic benefits, because the protection of the environment is essential for the sustainable success of any tourism destination” (p.18). Normally, the costs of environmental effects mainly focus on the following:
1. Tourism can increase the pollution of air, water and land, 2. Tourism can contribute to crowding, congestion,
3. Tourism may result in damage to heritage resources or an ecosystem
4. Land-use loss for agriculture, forestry and pastoral arises as built-up tourism areas are developed,
5. Increase urbanization,
6. Creates noise pollution from planes, cars, and tourists, 7. The need to generate increased amounts of energy,
8. The depletion of wildlife and the destruction of vegetation, loss of fauna and flora,
(Travis, 1982; Andereck, 1995; Hunter & Green, 1995; Ekrem, et al., 2002) On the other hand, some researchers also point out the existence of positive environmental impacts. For instance, Ap and Crompton (1998), and Mason (2008) among others stated that positive tourism environmental impacts are reflected in generating a greater awareness of preserving the natural environmental and historic sites that in turn stimulate measures to protect the environment, landscape and wildlife. Hall and Lew (2009) suggested that tourism provided a financial support for conservation; and at the same time, they also had a view that tourism could potentially involve local residents in protecting a local environment. Indeed, by investigating the local residents’ attitude toward tourism impacts in Jouzhaigou, China, it
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was pointed out that there were positive environmental impacts in that place, because tourism encouraged host residents to fully participate in environment protection policies (Li, Zhang
& Liu, 2006). In additional, by interviewing the local residents in Arizona (a southwest US state), Andereck et al, (2005) provided evidence that Arizona residents felt tourism can help improve the local environment by preservation of natural and cultural resources. Mason (2008, p.71) summarized factors influencing the tourism environmental impacts through a series of questions. First, “where are the tourist destinations?” is very important because an urban environment is likely to be affected differently when compared with a rural environment; secondly, the “what is the nature of the activities undertaken by tourists?” is also considered important. Some activities such as fishing and camping will have a great effect on the actual environment, while sight-seeing from a bus will have a smaller direct observable effect. Third, the nature of any tourist infrastructure will also be important.
However, our knowledge of the environmental impacts of tourism is still limited. “It is not easy to separate out the environmental impacts attributed to tourism from the effects of other economic causes, such as natural environmental change; it is not possible to separate the source of impacts upon the environment between local residents and tourist; and the consequences of tourism if often incremental and (yet) the effects are cumulative” (Holden, 2008, p.73). Additionally there are a number of significant methodological problems which need to be addressed before undertaking research on environmental impacts, such as distinguishing between changes caused by tourism and those due to other activities (Mathieson and Wall, 1982, p.94).
To protect the environment, government, residents, business operators and visitors should work together. As visitor numbers keep growing, there is need to carefully plan and manage tourism in relation to environmental impacts. Commentators such as Wall and Mathieson (2006, pp. 210-212) listed a number of techniques to manage visitors in tourist destinations, including: “regulating access, limiting visitation numbers and specifying behaviours;
undertaking market research and marketing; monitoring visitors and research; implementing education programmes and facilities; modifying the heritage management; encouraging and assisting volunteers; and concentrating on destination accreditation and organisations”.
Mason (2008) suggested that the concept of carrying capacity is a critical issue in assessing environment impact, and could determine the point at which negative environmental impacts will occur. Moreover, Raschke (2005) provided further suggestions for improving environmental planning policy, which aims at: “mainlining and enhancing biodiversity and
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natural landscape of the area; minimising pollution of soil, air and water and the sea;
minimising the consumption of resources, particular water and non-renewable resource;
increasing tourist; awareness of the importance of protecting the environment” (p.309).