ÍNDICE DE TABLAS
OBJECTIVES AND RESULTS
L- Arg eNOS NO
2.2. Fibra dietética
Özlem Tokus¸og˘lu and Gary Stoner
Introduction to Berry Fruits
Berry fruits, commonly called aggregate fruits, have clusters of one-seeded drupelets, each cluster of drupelets developing from a single flower. The drupelets are typically eaten as a cluster and not individu-ally (Rieger 2006b). The origin of berries is very complicated and there are numerous cultivated varieties that have been developed through the centuries.
Figure 7.1 shows major bioactives in berry fruits. Additionally, specific bioactives can be found in specific berries. Genotype-variety is the major factor in determining fruit nutritional quality, but it is also affected by crop conditions (environmental and cultivation techniques), ripening season, preharvest and postharvest conditions, shelf-life, and processing (Wang, 2007; Connor et al. 2002; Prior et al. 1998;
Proteggente et al. 2002; Wang, Cao, and Prior 1996).
A multitude of phenolic compounds have been detected in berries (Hertog et al. 1992b; Justesen et al. 1998; Schuster and Herrmann 1985; Wildanger and Herrmann 1973), their content being highly variable in different berries. Recent studies have shown that extracts of berries, in par-ticular strawberries and berries of the genus Vaccinium, have antioxidative (Costantino et al. 1992;
Kähkönen et al. 2001; Kalt et al. 1999; Prior et al. 1998; Wang et al. 1996) and anticarcinogenic (Stoner et al. 2010a; Bomser et al. 1996) effects in vitro, which are partly thought to be due to phe-nolic compounds.
CONTENTS
Introduction to Berry Fruits ...143 Phytochemical Bioactives in Berry Fruits... 144 Blackberry ... 144 Blueberry ...145 Raspberry ...147 Red Raspberry ...147 Black Raspberry ...152 Strawberry ...153 Bayberry ... 154 Chokeberry ... 156 Currant ... 157 Cranberry ... 158 Elderberry ... 160 Gooseberry ...161 References ...162
Phytochemical Bioactives in Berry Fruits blackberry
Blackberries (Rubus fruticosus sp.) are a species of fruit belonging to the subgenus Eubatus in the genus Rubus and are very complex in terms of genetic background, growth characteristics, and number of spe-cies (Figure 7.2). It has been shown that blackberries contain higher amounts of anthocyanins and other antioxidants than other fruits (Halvorsen et al. 2006; Cho et al. 2005; Moyer et al. 2002; Pantelidis et al.
2007). The blackberry fruits can be used in the industry for ice cream, juice, jam, marmalade, cake, and so on (Türemiş et al. 2003).
Blackberry extracts have been shown to have various bioactivities including protection against endothelial dysfunction and vascular failure in vitro (Serraino et al. 2003), attenuating the injury caused by LPS-induced endotoxic shock in rats (Sautebin et al. 2004), and exhibiting cytotoxic effects on human oral, prostate (Seeram et al. 2006), and lung (Feng et al. 2004) cancer cells. In a previous report, it was shown that an anthocyanin-containing extract (ACE) from Hull cultivar grown in Kentucky inhibited HT-29 colon cancer cell growth and reduced lipid A-induced interleukin-12 release from murine den-dritic cells (Dai et al. 2007).
Seven wild and 10 cultivated blackberries (Arapaho, Bartin, Black Satin, Bursa I, Bursa II, Cherokee, Chester, Jumbo, Navaho, and Ness) were analyzed for total anthocyanins, total phenolics, and antioxi-dant activity as ferric reducing antioxiantioxi-dant power (FRAP). The respective ranges of total anthocyanin and total phenolic contents of blackberries were 0.95–1.97 and 1.73–3.79 mg/g, respectively (Koca and Karadeniz 2009). In the study of Koca and Karadeniz (2009), FRAP values of blackberries varied from 35.05 to 70.41 mmol/g. Kafkas et al. (2006) reported the ascorbic acid (vitamin C) levels of blackberry cultivars: C. Thornless, Bursa II, and Loch Ness as 2.5 ± 0.3 mg/g extract, 4.6 ± 0.4 mg/g extract, and 14.9 ± 2.7 mg/g extract, respectively (Kafkas et al. 2006).
Cyanidin-3-glucoside (cyn-3-glu) is the major anthocyanin in blackberries (Cho et al. 2004; Fan-Chiang & Wrolstad 2005; Koca and Karadeniz 2009; Wada and Ou, 2002). Cyn-3-glu ranged from 77 to 90% of total anthocyanidins and the other minor anthocyanins that were identified included cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside (cyn-3,5-di glu), peonidin-3-glucoside (peo-3-glu), pelargonidin-3-glucoside (plg-3-glu), and cyanidin-3-rutinoside (cyn-3-rut; Koca and Karadeniz 2009).
Dai et al. (2009) reported the anthocyanin contents in puree and powder from selected U.S. blackberry cultivars (Table 7.1). It is clear that blackberries are good sources of anthocyanins.
Phenolic acids Flavonoids
Figure 7.1 Major bioactives in berry fruits.
Phytochemical Bioactives in Berries 145
blueberry
The blueberry fruit belongs to the family Ericaceae and the genus Vaccinium (V). The family includes both “highbush” (V. corymborsum and V. ashei) (Figure 7.3) and “lowbush” (native American: V. augus-tifolium) blueberries. All blueberries originated from wild berries. Highbush blueberries represent 57%
of the total North American blueberry production (USHBC 2009).
Blueberries have great health benefits due to their high antioxidant properties that are attributed to bioactive compounds such as the anthocyanins, phenolic acids, flavonols, flavan-3-ols, and ascorbic acid (Faria et al. 2005; Cho et al. 2005; Gosch, 2003; Kähkäonen et al. 2003; Kalt, 2006; Prior et al. 1998;
Taruscio et al. 2004).
The Vaccinium family of blueberries includes more than 450 plants. The plant family grows wild around the world and there are many names given to different blueberries. Different varieties of blue-berries are found in the United States: (a) V. corymbosum (Northern highbush), which grows in the Figure 7.2 Blackberry (Yalova).
TabLe 7.1
Total Anthocyanin and Total Phenolics in Selected Blackberry Cultivars Raw Material Cultivar
Total Anthocyaninb
(mg/g) Total Phenolicsa
Puree Hull 2005∂ 5.34 ± 0.19 24.07 ± 2.70
Hull 2006 7.54 ± 0.14 25.78 ± 0.56
Chester 2006 7.95 ± 0.15 25.31 ± 1.80
Black Satin 2006 7.16 ± 0.22 22.91 ± 1.24
Powder Hull 2005 4.51 ± 0.50 12.00 ± 0.77
Chester 2006 7.88 ± 0.23 14.61 ± 1.48
Black Satin 2006 7.67 ± 0.51 14.81 ± 1.59
Source: Adapted from Dai, J., Gupte, A., Gates, L., and Mumper, R. J., Food Chem. Toxicol., 47, 837–47, 2009.
a The extraction was repeated at least two times. All assays were carried out in triplicate.
b Total anthocyanins are expressed as cyanidin 3-glucoside equivalent.
c Total phenolics are expressed as gallic acid equivalent.
forests of North America and, along with V. Ashei, are used for cultivation of the modern highbush and cultivated blueberry industry; (b) V. ashei (called Southern rabbiteye), which thrive in the south-ern United States; (c) V. Angustifolium (lowbush or wild blueberries), which are very cold hardy and reach a height of only 1 or 2 feet. These berries grow in the wild from the Arctic to Minnesota and in the mountains of New York, New Hampshire, and Maine; and (d) V. Myrtilloides, a sour-tasting vel-vet-leaf blueberry found in the wilds of New England and the western United States (USHBC 2009).
Another variety of blueberries (V. myrtillus) commonly called by several different names are
“Yaban Mersini,” “Çalı Çiçeği,” “Mavi Çilek,” “Mavi Yemiş” that in Turkey grows naturally in the Eastern Black Sea region (Giresun, Ordu region) (Figure 7.4) and in Western Turkey (Uludağ region).
Traditional names for this berry are “likapa” in Rize, “kaskanaka” in Rize-Pazar, “çera” or “çela”
in Ardeşen, “ligarba,” “lifos,” or “trabzon” in Trabzon, “morsivit” or “mahabak” in Artvin, or “bear berry” (ayı üzümü), tea berry (çay üzümü), or “bucolie berry” (çoban üzümü) in the Black Sea Region (Çelik 2005; ISHS 2009).
Blueberry Bioactives
The blueberry contains a group of phytochemicals that have been implicated as mediators of cardiovas-cular protection. Recently, blueberries have been shown to prevent bone loss in an ovariectomized rat model of postmenopausal osteoporosis (Devareddya et al. 2008).
Figure 7.3 (See color insert) Blueberry (highbush blueberry [V. corymbosum]) in the United States.
Figure 7.4 (See color insert) Blueberry (V. myrtillus) in Eastern Black Sea Region, Turkey.
Phytochemical Bioactives in Berries 147
The phytochemicals present in blueberries include high quantities of flavonoid anthocyanins, predominately in their glycosylated and acylated forms; flavonols such as quercetin, kaempferol, and myricetin; flavan-3-ols such as ( + ) catechin, (–) epicatechin, and their oligomeric forms; and proan-thocyanidins and phenolic acids such as gallic, p-hydroxybenzoic, chlorogenic, p-coumaric, caffeic, ferulic, ellagic, benzoic, and cinnamic acids. The content and profiles of phenolic bioactives in blueber-ries vary widely, based on heredity, the geographic region where the berblueber-ries are grown, and the environ-mental conditions during the growing season and during the process of fruit maturation and ripening (Giovanelli et al. 2009; Taruscio et al. 2004; Kalt et al. 2003, 2001a, 2001b; Sellappan et al. 2002; Prior et al. 2001, 1998; Hakkinen and Torronen 2000; Hakkinen et al. 1999a; Kader et al. 1996; Kalt and McDonald 1996; Gao and Mazza 1994; Stohr and Hermann 1975).
The published data on blueberry composition usually refers to the cultivated highbush varieties such as Vaccinium corymbosum; there are relatively few reports concerning the composition of lowbush varieties, although they generally contain higher amounts of total phenolics and anthocyanins than the highbush varieties (Sinelli et al. 2008; Lee et al. 2004a, 2004b; Moyer et al. 2002; Kalt et al. 2001a;
Prior et al. 1998). Blueberry breeding includes investigating the germplasm of wild species to identify phenolic-rich species from which to breed cultivars with enhanced levels of bioactive components such as the anthocyanins (Scalzo et al. 2005).
Anthocyanins and Total Phenolics in Blueberry
According to data given by Ehlenfeldt and Prior (2001), total phenolic and total anthocyanin contents were evaluated in fruit tissues of 87 highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) and species-introgressed, highbush blueberry cultivars. Average values for phenolic acids and anthocyanins in the berries were 1.79 mg/g (gallic acid equivalents) and 0.95 mg/g (cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalents), respectively.
Kalt et al. (1999) reported that total phenolic and total anthocyanin values were 27.7 and 4.35 µmol g–1 for the lowbush blueberry and 22.7 and 2.67 µmol g–1 for the highbush blueberry, respectively. Zheng and Wang (2003) found that the total anthocyanin and phenolic contents in blueberries were 1.20 and 4.12 mg g–1, respectively.
Based on Table 7.2, 1435.2–8227.2 mg kg–1 of total anthocyanins are in various blueberry fruits includ-ing A-98, Bluecrop, Ozarkblue, US-497, US-720 (Cho et al. 2004). It is stated that individual anthocyanin levels of US-497 is higher than the other genotypes. Blueberries are among the fruits that are best recog-nized for their anthocyanin and flavonoid content and for their potential health benefits.
Marinova and Ribarova (2007) reported the presence of carotenoids in blueberries (Vaccinium myr-tillus L.) obtained from Bulgarian markets. However, the highest levels of zeaxanthin (29 mg/100 g), beta-cryptoxanthin (30.1 mg/100 g), and beta-carotene (101.4 mg/100 g) carotenoids were found in blackberries in this study.
raspberry
The raspberry is the edible aggregate fruit of a multitude of plant species in the genus Rubus and the subgenus Idaeobatus. The name originally referred to the European species Rubus idaeus (with red fruit), which is still used as its standard English name (IF 2009; Figures 7.5 through 7.7). Raspberries are mem-bers of the Rosaceae family, are grown as perennial crops, and are made of many drupelets and a hollow center where the fruit detaches from the receptacle.
Raspberries are soft and juicy with a distinct aroma and are a good source of natural antioxidants including anthocyanin, phenolic acids, and other flavonoids (Mullen et al. 2002a). Additionally, raspber-ries have high levels of vitamins and minerals (Heinonen et al. 1998; Wang and Lin, 2000)
Red Raspberry
The European subspecies of red raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) is designated R. idaeus subsp. vulgatus Arrhen, whereas the North American subspecies is termed R. idaeus subsp. strigosus Michx., or more
TabLe 7.2
Antocyanin Content of Blueberry Genotypes (as mg kg–1 Fresh Weight)∗ Genotype
Compound A-98a Bluecrop Ozarkblue US-497 US-720
Delphinidin 3-galactoside 730.5 ± 56.1d 188.5 ± 22.1 389.8 ± 41.2 1519.0 ± 92.6 973.1 ± 88.2 Delphinidin 3-glucoside 14.3 ± 1.2 126.4 ± 15.2 8.1 ± 0.8 50.4 ± 4.2 28.2 ± 3.8 Cyanidin 3-galactoside 155.1 ± 8.8 35.6 ± 3.4 112.7 ± 12.3 762.5 ± 57.0 319.8 ± 33.3 Delphinidin 3-arabinoside 362.8 ± 40.8 163.1 ± 19.7 185.8 ± 17.1 659.8 ± 49.4 540.0 ± 76.6 Cyanidin 3-glucoside 7.1 ± 0.8 20.2 ± 2.0 4.0 ± 0.4 38.0 ± 1.6 13.0 ± 1.4 Petunidin 3-galactoside 544.5 ± 48.5 113.3 ± 14.5 228.6 ± 23.8 1133.2 ± 109.6 766.4 ± 85.7 Cyanidin 3-arabinoside 64.2 ± 5.0 26.1 ± 2.6 46.7 ± 4.7 349.4 ± 29.2 137.5 ± 18.8 Petunidin 3-glucoside 14.3 ± 1.0 111.4 ± 14.2 7.5 ± 0.9 57.4 ± 4.2 33.6 ± 4.0 Peonidin 3-galactoside 58.7± 3.6 13.8 ± 0.9 18.4 ± 2.1 335.8 ± 22.4 62.4 ± 6.8 Petunidin 3-arabinoside 243.5 ± 23.5 81.9 ± 12.1 113.7 ± 10.2 365.9 ± 52.6 330.1 ± 40.5 Malvidin 3-galactoside 715.6 ± 49.2 159.8 ± 25.0 195.7 ± 20.9 1792.6 ± 83.8 681.3 ± 80.3 Malvidin 3-glucoside 43.8 ± 2.4 153.3 ± 22.0 18.7 ± 2.3 195.9 ± 20.9 67.0 ± 6.8
Peonidin 3-arabinoside 68.2 ± 9.6 6.4 ± 0.5 2.4 ± 0.8 34.8 ± 2.5 ND
Malvidin 3-arabinoside 352.1 ± 25.6 144.0 ± 22.0 105.2 ± 9.5 718.6 ± 66.7 357.0 ± 41.8 Delphinidin
3-acetylglucoside 68.7 ± 8.6 27.9 ± 4.1 5.3 ± 1.2 44.2 ± 3.8 6.4 ± 0.3
Petunidin
3-acetylglucoside 190.9 ± 20.2 15.8 ± 3.3 ND 114.9 ± 9.9 ND
Malvidin 3-acetylglucoside
17.4 ± 1.5 36.1 ± 4.6 ND 10.0 ± 0.5 ND
Unknown acylated anthocy.b 39.5 ± 4.7 11.6 ± 2.2 1.3 ± 0.1 44.9 ± 4.2 3.6 ± 0.3
Total anthocyaninsc 3691.2b 1435.2c 1443.9c 8227.3a 4319.4b
Note: ND, not detected
* All data was adapted from Cho, M. J., Howard, L. R., Prior, R. L., and Clark, J. R., J. Sci. Food Agric., 84, 1771–82, 2004.
a Breeding selection not available for sale or present in commerce at the time of writing.
b Data expressed as delphinidin 3-monoglucoside equivalents.
c Values with similar letters are not significantly different (LSD, p > 0.05).
d Standard deviation (n = 3).
Figure 7.5 (See color insert) Black raspberry in the United States. (From Oregon Berry Packing Company, Hillsboro, Oregon, USA, 2010. With permission.)
Phytochemical Bioactives in Berries 149
simply R. idaeus (European) and R. strigosus (North American), whereas black raspberry (R. occidentalis L.) is fairly straight-forward, being a good species on its own. Its range overlaps that of R. strigosus, but extends further to the south (Rieger 2006a).
Red raspberries are the most important commercial raspberries. They are produced in 37 countries worldwide on about 184,000 acres (FAOSTAT 2007). The five countries with the highest production (percentage of world raspberry production) include Russia (24%), Serbia and Montenegro (23%), the United States (13%), Poland (11%), and Germany (7%; FAOSTAT 2007). In Turkey, the raspberry known as R. idaeus is called “ahududu” or “framboise.” For the fresh market, red raspberries are best harvested when bright red. They can be stored at 0°C for only a few days due to the breakdown of berry components such as vitamin C. About 42% of the total crop of red raspberries are quick frozen for the frozen market, 35% are converted to juice, and 25% are freshly consumed (Akdag 2008). The red raspberry has high free radical scavenging capacity owing to its numerous bioactive compounds with potential health benefits. In this context it is an economically important berry fruit (De Ancos et al. 2000a).
Figure 7.6 (See color insert) Red raspberry in Turkey, Blacksea Region. (Agaclar.net, Turkey, Jelsoft enterprises Ltd.)
Figure 7.7 (See color insert) Stockholm originated yellow raspberry (allgold) in Turkey. (Adapted from Agaclar.net, Turkey, Jelsoft enterprises Ltd.)
Anthocyanins in Red Raspberries
Red raspberries (R. idaeus L.) have a high free radical scavenging capacity and are rich in both vita-min C and total phenolics (De Ancos, et al. 2000a). They contain a distinct spectrum of 11 different anthocyanins, the most abundant being cyanidin-3-sophoroside, cyanidin-3-(2G-glucosylrutinoside), and cyanidin-3-glucoside (Mullen et al. 2002a).
De Ancos et al. (1999) reported the content of anthocyanins in four Spanish raspberry cultivars;
Autumn Bliss, Heritage, Rubi, and Ceva and the highest levels (expressed as cyanidin-3-glucoside) were found in the late cultivars, Rubi (96.08 mg/100 g fresh weight or f.w.) and Ceva (122.88 mg/100 g f.w.).
These investigators also measured vitamin C in these cultivars and found the highest amount (31.14 mg/100 g f.w.) in Spanish Rubi. In the same study, the organic acids were found to be the fruit constitu-ents responsible for color quality. Citric acid was the main nonvolatile organic acid (90%) in all raspberry cultivars and the Rubi cultivar had the highest total level of nonvolatile organic acids (2003 mg/100 g f.w.). Hunter color CIE values showed that Rubi was the reddest raspberry cultivar.
Factors Influencing Levels of Anthocyanins in Red Raspberries
The levels of anthocyanins in red raspberries are influenced by the genotype, environmental conditions in which the berries are grown, ripeness at the time of harvest and storage conditions after harvest. The anthocyanin content depends on the genotype such that late cultivars appear to have a higher content of anthocyanins than the early ones (De Ancos et al. 1999). Anttonen and Karjalaine (2005) reported that the level of anthocyanins and other phenolics varied widely and significantly between raspberry cultivars grown in northern European conditions (i.e., in Finland). The total anthocyanin content varied from close to 0 (yellow cultivars) to 51 mg/100 g f.w. (cv Gatineau) whereas the content of total phenolics varied from 192 (cv Gatineau) to 359 mg/100 g f.w. (cv Ville).
Full mature raspberries (100%) have higher total anthocyanin contents when compared with less ripe (50% maturity) berries, and this higher degree of ripeness is associated with their increased antioxidant activity (Wang et al. 2009). Wang et al. (2009) also reported that raspberries harvested at greener stages (5% and 20% ripeness) also consistently showed higher antioxidant activities and total phenolics than those harvested at 50%. Kalt et al. reported that temperature above 0°C have been shown to increase the anthocyanin contents of red raspberries on storage (Kalt et al. 1999). Freezing increased the total anthocyanin content in some raspberry cultivars, but decreased it in others (De Ancos et al. 2000b).
Ellagitannins in Raspberries
Daniel et al. (1989) found that ellagitannins occur in high concentrations in both red and black raspberries.
These berries contain about three times more ellagic acid than walnuts and pecans. Red raspberries contain two ellagitannins (sanguiin H-6 and lambertianin C) in significant quantities with sanguiin H-6 being the most abundant (Mullen et al. 2002a). Figures 7.8 and 7.9 illustrate the structures of Lambertianin C and Sanguiin H-6, respectively. The ellagitannins contribute significantly to the antioxidant activity and vasodi-lation properties of raspberries. It is stated that Sanguiin H-6 was a major contributor to the antioxidant capacity of raspberries together with vitamin C and the anthocyanin compounds (Mullen et al. 2002a).
The ellagitannins in berries are hydrolyzed to ellagic acid (Figure 7.10), a bioactive compound that has been reported to have antiviral activity (Corthout, et al. 1991) and provide protection against cancers of the colon, lung, esophagus, and skin (Stoner et al. 2007). As with other polyphenolic antioxidants, ellagic acid has a chemoprotective effect in cellular models by reducing oxidative stress, and has antioxidant and antiproliferative properties in a number of in vitro and small-animal models (Ross et al. 2007; Seeram et al. 2005; Vattem and Shetty, 2005).
The anti-initiation properties of ellagic acid have the ability to directly inhibit the DNA binding of certain carcinogens, including nitrosamines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (Stoner et al.
2010b; Mandal and Stoner 1990; Teel et al. 1986).
Factors Influencing Ellagitannin Levels in Raspberries
Anttonen and Karjalaine (2005) reported that the ellagitannin levels in raspberries varied with the cul-tivar. Ellagic acid content varied from 38 (cv Gatineau and cv Nova) to 118 mg/100 g f.w. (cv Ville) in
Phytochemical Bioactives in Berries 151
Figure 7.8 Lambertianin C in raspberries. (Adapted from Beattie, J., Crozier, A., and Duthie, G. G., Curr. Nutr. Food Sci., 1:71–86, 2005.)
Figure 7.9 Sanguiin H-6 in raspberries. (Adapted from Beattie, J., Crozier, A., and Duthie, G. G., Curr. Nutr. Food Sci., 1:71–86, 2005.)
Figure 7.10 Ellagic acid in raspberries. (Adapted from Beattie, J., Crozier, A., and Duthie, G. G., Curr. Nutr. Food Sci., 1:71–86, 2005.)
Finland raspberry cultivars. In addition, processing red raspberries by freezing and storing them frozen decreased the total level of ellagic acid and its derivatives (De Ancos et al. 2000a; Zafrilla et al. 2001).
The effect of storing the berries frozen on ellagic acid content appears to vary with different cultivars (De Ancos et al. 2000a).
Flavonols in Red Raspberry
Mullen et al. (2002a) identified the three quercetin conjugates (rutinoside, glucoside, and quercetin-3-glucuronide) and also kaempferol glucuronide in red raspberry. The levels of kaempferol are lower than that of quercetin (Mullen et al. 2002b).
Factors Influencing Flavonol Levels in Raspberries
Anttonen and Karjalaine (2005) reported that flavonol levels varied significantly between Finland raspberry cultivars. The quercetin level ranged from 0.32 (yellow cultivar) to 1.55 mg/100 g f.w. (cv Balder).
Flavonol compounds are quite stable when berries are heated during jam processing (Zafrilla et al.
2001). Flavonols can decrease significantly when berries are stored at 20°C over a period of 6 months.
However, Häkkinen et al. (2000) reported no loss in quercetin levels when raspberries were stored frozen for 9 months.
Anttonen and Karjalaine (2005) also found that the environment in which raspberries are grown has a considerable effect on the quercetin concentration. In this context, breeding material should be evaluated for its content of bioactives in different regions to identify those areas that provide the highest levels of bioactives.
Black Raspberry
Black raspberries have been investigated extensively for their ability to prevent cancer in rodents and, potentially, in humans (see reviews by Stoner 2009; Stoner et al. 2007, 2008a,b). Freeze-dried black raspberry powder has been shown to prevent chemically induced cancer in the rodent oral cavity, esophagus, and colon when provided in a synthetic diet at concentrations of 5 and 10%. In addition, the oral consumption of black raspberry powder (20 g/3 × /day) in a slurry of water for an average of 3 weeks led to a reduction in the growth rate and an increase in the apoptotic rate of colon cancer cells in cancer patients. In patients with a hereditable disease termed familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP), the oral consumption of black raspberry powder (20g/3 × /day) coupled with the intrarectal administration of black raspberry suppositories (1.4 g/day) led to a 36% median regression rate of rectal polyps. Mechanistic studies have shown that the berries positively modulate the expression levels of genes associated with proliferation, apoptosis, inflammation, angiogenesis, cell cycling and adhesion, differentiation, and multiple metabolic processes (Stoner et al. 2008; Wang et al. 2008, 2009; Huang 2006).
Black raspberries exhibit high antioxidant activity due, in part, to their high levels of anthocyanins, ellagitannins, and other phenols (Stoner et al. 2009; Tian et al. 2006; Kresty et al. 2001). The four major anthocyanins in black raspberries are: glucoside, rutinoside, cyanidin-3-xylosylrutinoside, and cyanidin-3- sambubioside (Tulio et al. 2008; Tian et al. 2005). Biofractionation studies provide evidence that the anthocyanins in the alcohol/water soluble fraction of black raspber-ries are responsible for an appreciable amount of their chemopreventive activity in vitro (Hecht et al.
2006) and in vivo in rat esophagus (Wang et al. 2009). However, the alcohol/water insoluble fraction is also chemopreventive in rat esophagus and studies are underway to identify the active components in this fraction. Pharmacokinetic studies in rodents and in humans indicate that the anthocyanins and ellagic acid in black raspberries are poorly absorbed into the blood (Stoner et al. 2005). Black rasp-berries also contain numerous other components with chemopreventive potential including vitamins A, C, E, and folic acid; calcium, selenium, and zinc; ellagic, ferulic, p-coumaric, and chlorogenic acids; and quercetin and phytosterols such as ß-sitosterol and stigmasterol (Kresty et al. 2001 and Stoner et al. 2009).
Phytochemical Bioactives in Berries 153
Except for red and black raspberries, the yellow variety tastes quite spectacular. It has a normal rasp-berry taste but much sweeter than normal red varieties. The yellow variety is available in December, and its breeding may be carried out. Figure 7.7 shows Stockholm originated yellow raspberries (allgold) in Turkey.
Strawberry
The cultivated strawberry, Fragaria X ananassa Duch., is a member of the family Rosaceae, sub-family Rosoideae, along with blackberries and raspberries (Rieger 2009). Strawberries are pro-duced in 73 countries worldwide on about 529,000 acres (FAOSTAT 2007). The top 10 producing countries (as a percentage of world strawberry production) include the United States (27%), Spain (9%), Japan (7%), Korea (7%), Mexico (5%), Italy (5%), Russia (5%), Turkey (5%), Poland (4%), and Germany (3%; FAOSTAT 2007). Strawberries (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.; Figure 7.11) are very popular among the available berry types and are widely consumed as fresh fruit and as preserves, jams, yogurts, and ice creams. In California, the major cultivars of strawberries are Camarosa, Diamante, Aromas, and Selva; and in Florida they are Camarosa, Selva, Oso Grande, Sweet Charlie,
The cultivated strawberry, Fragaria X ananassa Duch., is a member of the family Rosaceae, sub-family Rosoideae, along with blackberries and raspberries (Rieger 2009). Strawberries are pro-duced in 73 countries worldwide on about 529,000 acres (FAOSTAT 2007). The top 10 producing countries (as a percentage of world strawberry production) include the United States (27%), Spain (9%), Japan (7%), Korea (7%), Mexico (5%), Italy (5%), Russia (5%), Turkey (5%), Poland (4%), and Germany (3%; FAOSTAT 2007). Strawberries (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.; Figure 7.11) are very popular among the available berry types and are widely consumed as fresh fruit and as preserves, jams, yogurts, and ice creams. In California, the major cultivars of strawberries are Camarosa, Diamante, Aromas, and Selva; and in Florida they are Camarosa, Selva, Oso Grande, Sweet Charlie,