The third area of affected functioning is that of social functioning, which may be a result of the increase in self-confidence (mentioned in the previous section). The participants may experience a sense of achievement when taking part in the therapeutic horseback riding, which in turn increases their self-esteem and self-efficacy, in turn affecting their ability to
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interact socially. Following this confidence boost, the children are more likely to try activities or behaviours that they previously were too afraid to try, thereby increasing their participation (Debuse et al., 2009).
According to Bass et al. (2009), the resulting increase in social functioning following therapeutic horseback riding is also possibly due to the multisensory experience of horseback riding; the exposure to and interaction with the horse as well as the actual riding of the horse may be “perceived as a rewarding stimulus” that leads to increased motivation and social
interaction (p. 1266). The researchers in this study concluded that therapeutic horseback riding has the potential to positively affect children with autism, specifically with regard to social motivation (among other things).
Elliott et al. (2008) reported that the child participants in their study found the social aspect of the horseback riding to be important to them; relationships are formed with the horse as well as with the side walkers, horse leaders, and instructors. A child who struggles to communicate with people may find it easier to communicate with a horse who may be less threatening as they cannot speak back (Elliott et al., 2008). Grandin et al. (2010) reported studies that found that participants with autism spectrum disorders had improved
communication skills following therapeutic horseback riding. Interactions with horses are also non-judgmental, and horses are unconditionally accepting, silent creatures (Bizub et al., 2003). This may benefit shy children and children with low self-esteem, or children who struggle to communicate, as they do not feel pressured to speak.
Riding is also a fun activity that gets the child involved in interactions with horses and people (Grandin et al., 2010). According to Lessick et al. (2004), the riding lessons and environment provide children with disabilities, who are often isolated because of their disability, a chance socialize with other children with similar disabilities. A parent in a study
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by Miller and Alston (2004) stated that their child‟s shyness and involvement in activities had
improved following therapeutic horseback riding.
Scialli (2002) found that social communication/interaction behaviours were the greatest affected behaviours by therapeutic horseback riding. Included in these improvements were: expression of self in an appropriate manner, effective communication (giving and receiving information), participation in activities, and getting along with others. Similarly, parent participants in a South African study reported that their children were more engaging, less shy, more expressive, and more interactive and open following participation in
therapeutic horseback riding (Surujlal & Rufus, 2011).
2.2.2. Equine-assisted psychotherapy (EAP)
EAP (also known as equine-facilitated psychotherapy) is the practice of psychotherapy that involves the use of horses as the tool to obtain psychotherapeutic outcomes (Lentini & Knox, 2009; Schultz et al., 2007). Psychotherapeutic outcomes include improving self-esteem and confidence, among others (Kersten & Thomas, cited in Schultz et al., 2007). It is generally facilitated by two people: a mental health professional and an equine professional (Kruger & Serpell, 2006).
Horses make superlative domestic animals for therapeutic assistance. Their large size and therefore their potential to harm humans allows for the conquering of fears as well as dealing with issues of vulnerability (Lentini & Knox, 2009). Their honest, straightforward nature allows humans to see exactly what they themselves are putting forward and to improve their communication, almost like a mirror (Lentini & Knox, 2009; Schultz et al., 2007). They also have an ability to bring forward issues or problems that may not be acknowledged by humans. This allows for many opportunities for therapeutic recognition, intervention, and healing (Lentini & Knox, 2009).
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Studies on EAP have yielded positive results. Following an EAP intervention with 63 children who had been involved in intra-family violence, Schultz et al. (2007) found that these children‟s psychological, social, and school functioning improved after 19 EAP
sessions. Similarly, Bachi, Terkel, and Teichman (2012), found that self-image, self-control, trust, and life satisfaction of 14 at-risk adolescents improved following an EAP intervention (in comparison to a control group who received no treatment) over a 7 month period.
2.2.3. Hippotherapy
Hippotherapy is a subtype of AAT used by a human services practitioner that uses a horse to obtain functional goals in order to rehabilitate a person‟s physical or movement disorder
(Silkwood-Sherer et al., 2012). It has physical and psychological benefits (Zadnikar & Kastrin, 2011), however the main focus is on using the movement of the horse to help the client physically (All et al., 1999; Kruger & Serpell, 2006; Silkwood-Sherer et al., 2012; Tseng et al., 2013).
Literature focused on the effects of hippotherapy on children with disabilities yield positive results for a range of disabilities. In a study involving children with physical disabilities (such as cerebral palsy and developmental delays), Murphy et al. (2008) found that 3 out of the 4 children showed improvements in their functional outcomes (for example crawling and climbing stairs) following 6 months of hippotherapy. Frank, McCloskey,and Dole (2011) found that hippotherapy increased a child with cerebral palsy‟s self-competence and participation in physical therapy, as well as her functional ability. Several studies on children with physical disabilities have reported improvements in the following after participation in hippotherapy: muscle symmetry (Benda et al., 2003), muscle tone, trunk control, and walking ability (Debuse et al., 2009), reducing balance deficits and improving the ability to perform day-to-day tasks (Silkwood-Sherer et al., 2012).
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With regard to children with autism, Taylor et al. (2009) found that motivation increased in three children following a 16-week hippotherapy program. Hippotherapy has also been found to improve postural control and gross motor function in children with Down syndrome (Champagne & Dugas, 2010) as well as balance and strength in children with intellectual disabilities (Giagazoglou, Arabtzi, Dipla, Liga, & Kellis, 2012).