Responses to Likert part of questionnaire
In Chapter 3 it was mentioned that the SUSSI rubrics provided by Liang et al. (2009) were adopted for scoring both LUSSI closed and open-ended learner responses. Few minor syntactical changes were made to the SUSSI as explained in Chapter 3, and not much changed on the adopted instrument. Both the instrument and the
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rubrics had gone through a successful validation process in various educational contexts similar to South Africa such as Taiwan and China and found valid. The SUSSI rubrics were also used to categorize LUSSI pilot responses for both learners and teachers and found to appropriately categorize participants’ responses hence chosen as valid for this study. For closed responses scoring was done as follows: strongly agree = 1, agree = 2, not decided = 3, disagree = 4 and strongly disagree = 5 (Liang, et al., 2006). Items representing
inadequate/naïve conception of science (negative Likert items) were scored in reverse.
These items are: 1B, IC, 2D, 3B, 3C, 4A, 4D, 5C, 5D, 6B, and 6C. A low total (minimum score = 24) score meant agreement with naive views of science and scientific knowledge and a high total score (maximum score = 120) meant views that were informed or extremely adequate. In Table 5.1 learners responses to Likert items are summarized. These results are from all the five schools.
Table 5.1: Placement of learners along a normative map based on learners’ total score on closed (Likert) responses to the LUSSI questionnaire (n = 167).
When scoring learners’ closed responses, the inadequate/ extremely adequate categorization was equated to the naïve/informed classification. Highly and extremely adequate views refer to responses which are considered informed by the science community. As is shown in Tables 5.1, the number of learners falling into each category along a normative scale ranging from inadequate to extremely adequate varies. Scores below the theoretical
Categorization of learners’ views Scaled Score Range Score Range Count (Number of students) Frequency as a percentage Inadequate naive 1.4 - 2.3 25 - 43 0 0
Poorly adequate naive 2.4 - 3.4 44 - 62 11 7
Moderately adequate
transitional views
3.5 - 4.5 63 - 81 138 82
Highly adequate informed 4.6 - 5.5 82 - 100 18 11
Extremely adequate
informed 5.6 - 6.6 101 - 120 0 0
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midpoints (74) are taken to show inadequate views and scores above the theoretical midpoints to indicate adequate views. Within the inadequate views category, learners can fall into the inadequate (also known as naive) (score range 25-43) and poorly adequate (score range 44-62). A similar categorization is shown for adequate views. Within the adequate views category, learners can fall into the moderately adequate group (also known as the transitional views) (score range 63-81), highly adequate (score range 82-100) and extremely adequate (also known as informed views) (score range 101-120). The majority of the learners (82 %) held moderately adequate (transitional) views of the NOSI. Table 5.2 gives the descriptive statistics showing the variability for learners’ scores on the LUSSI closed (Likert) responses.
Of the 13 items phrased in the informed view sense, there was more than 69 % agreement (percentage of learners saying agree or strongly agree) for nine of the items. Some notable statements getting high approval (with the cumulative percentage of learners strongly agreeing and agreeing in brackets) from the learners are:
Scientists use a variety of methods to conduct scientific investigations (86 %) Scientists’ may make different interpretations based on the sameobservation (95 %)
Scientific theories are subject to on-going testing and revision (72 %)
Scientific theories exist in the natural world and are uncovered through scientific investigations (72 %).
Learners also showed strong naive views on some items. Some examples (with cumulative percentages of learners strongly agreeing and agreeing in brackets) include:
Scientific laws are theories that have been proven (82 %) Unlike theories, scientific laws are not subject to change (69 %)
When scientists use the scientific method correctly, their results are true and accurate (72 %).
178 5.1.3 Comparison across schools
The LUSSI closed response scores (Table 5.2) show that there was little variation in the views of the learners on moving from one school to the next. Although the sample sizes per school were small (ranging 23-44 learners), the average scores from school to school generally show little variation. This variation is further clarified and shown on Figure 5.1.
Table 5.2: Descriptive statistics showing the variability for learners’ scores on the LUSSI closed responses.
As shown in Figure 5.1, it can be seen that school B, located in the city a former model C school which formerly had the best facilities, best teachers and best educational opportunities for children recording the lowest mean of total score and school D, located in the townships and previously a historical disadvantaged school recorded the highest. However, the difference in the mean scores between school D and school E, also located in the townships and a previously historical disadvantaged school is very small (75.22, 75.18).
School Sex Mean Std. Deviation N
A Male 73.75 5.396 12 Female 72.96 7.208 23 Total 73.23 6.571 35 B Female 70.06 6.988 32 Total 70.06 6.988 32 C Male 74.40 4.570 20 Female 71.08 5.324 24 Total 72.59 5.213 44 D Male 76.60 9.218 15 Female 72.63 7.328 8 Total 75.22 8.655 23 E Male 73.08 7.077 12 Female 76.38 6.924 21 Total 75.18 7.055 33 Total Male 74.56 6.637 59 Female 72.32 6.971 108 Total 73.11 6.918 167
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Figure 5.1: Variation of learners’ scores on views of the NOSI across the schools A two-way between-groups analysis of variance was conducted to explore the effect of school on views of learners’ conceptions of the NOSI, as measured by the closed response section of Learners Understanding of Science and Scientific Inquiry (LUSSI) instrument. Subjects were divided into five groups according to their schools (School A: 35 learners; School B: 32 learners; School C: 44 learners; School D: 23 learners; School E: 33 learners). There was a statistically significant main effect for the school [F (4, 158) = 3.03, p = .02]; however the effect size was small (partial eta squared = .40). Post-hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score for school B (M = 70.06, SD = 6.99) was significantly different from school D (M =75.22, 8.66) and school E (M = 75.18, SD = 7.06). The other two schools, school A (M = 73.23, 6.57) and school C (M = 72.59, SD = 5.21) did not differ significantly from either of the other groups. The main effect for sex [F (1, 158) = .94, p = .33] and the interaction effect [F (3, 158 = 1.82, p = .15] did not reach statistical significance. These differences are explained on the discussion section.
180 5.1.4 Comparison across gender
A two-way between-groups analysis of variance was conducted to explore the relationship between gender and learners’ conceptions of the NOSI, as measured by the closed response section of Learners Understanding of Science and Scientific Inquiry (LUSSI) instrument. The LUSSI closed response scores also show that there was little variation in the views of the learners according to gender. This variation is further clarified and shown on Figure 5.2.
No difference was found between males and females in their responses to the LUSSI closed (Likert) response items. There is no bar for males at school B because school B is a girl’s only school. The graph (Figure 5.2) shows as if there is an enormous difference between male and female scores for school D. However, reading across to the scale, the difference is only small (72.63 as compared with 76.60). The two-way between-groups analysis of variance performed to determine differences between the males and females’ mean scores with alpha set at .05 showed that males and females perceived the NOSI in the same manner ([F (1, 158) = .94, p = .33]) when the total score on the LUSSI instrument was considered.
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Since SPSS for Windows Version 16.0 does not provide eta squared values for t-tests, the values were calculated manually using information provided in the output (see Appendix I) using the formula for eta squared as follows:
t2
Eta squared = ______________ t2 + (N1 +N2-2)
where N1 = number of males; and N2 = number of females
Gender responses (both males and females as a group) to the LUSSI closed items were related (Pearson r.) to the school (r = -.176, p = .02 for a 2-tailed test) with alpha set at .05. Gender responses to the LUSSI closed items were also related to the total score (r = -.155, p = .046 for a 2–tailed test) though the correlation was negative. Responses only to the ‘observation and inferences’ sub-items were however found to be related to the school (r = .193, p = .01 for a 2–tailed test). Responses to all six tenet’s sub-scale scores were however found to be related to learners’ total score [observations and inferences (r = .418, p = .00); change of scientific theories (r = .448, p = .00); scientific laws versus theories (r = .169, p =.03); social and cultural influence on science (r = .482, p = .00); imagination and creativity in scientific investigations (r = .632, p = .00); methodology of scientific investigations (r = .434, p = .00) with alpha set at .05 for a 2–tailed test]. All six tenets’ sub-scales scores showed strong positive correlations with the total score.