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4. Discussion

4.1. 0UÅ\LUJLVM[HZRJOHYHJ[LYPZ[PJZ!VWLULUKLK]LYZ\ZZ[Y\J[\YLK,- tasks

Compared to TD individuals, individuals with ASD showed impairments in all EF domains, with the most pronounced and most consistently found KLÄJP[Z PU JVNUP[P]L ÅL_PIPSP[` 5V PTWHPYTLU[Z ^LYL MV\UK VU HU` VM [OL JVU[YVS TLHZ\YLZ HUK ,- NYV\W KPɈLYLUJLZ YLTHPULK HM[LY JVU[YVSSPUN MVY WVZZPISL JVUMV\UKZ Z\NNLZ[PUN [OH[ [OL VIZLY]LK NYV\W KPɈLYLUJLZ LɈLJ[P]LS`YLÅLJ[L_LJ\[P]LK`ZM\UJ[PVUPU(:+/V^L]LYMVYUVULVM[OL,- KVTHPUZM\SSJVU]LYNLUJL^HZTL[ZPUJLNYV\WKPɈLYLUJLZVUHZWLJPÄJ,- domain depended on task characteristics and occasionally on the age of the participants. For inhibition, individuals with ASD showed impaired prepotent response inhibition (Go/No-Go task), but intact resistance to distractor interference (Flanker task). Correspondingly, Hill (2004) postulated that inhibition of prepotent responses is particularly impaired in individuals with ASD, with sparing of other types of inhibition. However, recent meta-analyses indicated problems with both prepotent response inhibition and interference JVU[YVS^P[OHSHYNLYLɈLJ[ZPaLILPUNHZZVJPH[LK^P[OWYLWV[LU[YLZWVUZL PUOPIP[PVUKPɉJ\S[PLZI\[THU`PUJVUZPZ[LUJPLZIL[^LLUZ[\KPLZ.L\Y[Z]HU KLU )LYNO  9\aHUUV PU WYLZZ -VY JVNUP[P]L ÅL_PIPSP[` NLULYH[P]P[` HUK working memory, two tasks were included per domain, varying in the degree VMVWLULUKLKULZZ.YV\WKPɈLYLUJLZPU[OLZLKVTHPUZ^LYLNLULYHSS`TVYL pronounced and stable over development for the more open-ended tasks. *VNUP[P]LÅL_PIPSP[`KLÄJP[Z^LYLVIZLY]LKVUIV[OÅL_PIPSP[`[HZRZI\[VUS` VU [OL TVYL VWLULUKLK >*:;>*;: [HZR NYV\W KPɈLYLUJLZ ^LYL MV\UK for both age groups, while on the more structured Switch task impairments ^LYLYLZ[YPJ[LK[V[OL(:+JOPSKNYV\W`LHYZ;OLZLÄUKPUNZYLWSPJH[L previous reports of impaired performance on the WCST-WCTS (Van Eylen et al., 2011) and intact performance on the Switch task for adults with (:+ :JOTP[a L[ HS  -\Y[OLYTVYL VU IV[O JVNUP[P]L ÅL_PIPSP[` [HZRZ individuals with ASD made more switch errors but had comparable switch JVZ[ 9; WYVIHIS` K\L [V H ZWLLKHJJ\YHJ` [YHKLVɈ -VY NLULYH[P]P[` HUK ^VYRPUNTLTVY`NYV\WKPɈLYLUJLZ^LYLVUS`VIZLY]LKVU[OLTVZ[VWLU ended tasks (Uses of Objects and Spatial Working Memory), but not on the TVYLZ[Y\J[\YLKVULZ+LZPNU-S\LUJ`HUK:WH[PHS:WHU4VYLZWLJPÄJHSS` on the Uses of Objects task the total number of responses and the percentage of literal repetitions were equal in both groups. However, ASD individuals generated fewer correct answers due to a higher number of incorrect and YLK\UKHU[YLZWVUZLZ;OLZLÄUKPUNZSHYNLS`JVYYLZWVUK[VWYL]PV\ZYLWVY[Z of generativity problems in individuals with ASD when measured with the Uses of Objects task (Bishop & Norbury, 2005; Dichter, Lam, Turner-Brown, /VS[aJSH^ )VKÄZO "3V^.VKKHYK 4LSZLY ";\YULY I\[ UV[^OLUTLHZ\YLK^P[O[OL+LZPNU-S\LUJ`[LZ[3VWLa3PUJVSU6aVUVɈ & Lai, 2005). When reviewing spatial working memory studies, largely JVUZPZ[LU[ KLÄJP[Z OH]L ILLU MV\UK VU [OL :WH[PHS >VYRPUN 4LTVY` [HZR

84 Executive functioning in ASD

with more spared performance on spatial span tasks (Kenworthy et al., 2008). Regarding planning, we observed subtle impairments on the Tower test, as individuals with ASD appeared to need more time to generate a plan, but they executed the plan in a similar manner as TD individuals. Most other studies investigating planning abilities observed problems in individuals with ASD, however, intact performance has also been reported (for a review see Hill, 2004; Kenworthy et al., 2008). Finally, the most open-ended EF measure (the )90,-YLÅLJ[PUN,-PUKHPS`SPMLYL]LHSLK[OLTVZ[WYVUV\UJLKPTWHPYTLU[Z PUHSSTLHZ\YLK,-KVTHPUZPUOPIP[PVUJVNUP[P]LÅL_PIPSP[`^VYRPUNTLTVY` and planning).

Taken together, our study indicates that individuals with ASD show TVYL ,- KPɉJ\S[PLZ PU VWLULUKLK ZL[[PUNZ IV[O KHPS` SPML HUK SHIVYH[VY` tasks) than on more structured tasks. Some EF impairments were even restricted to open-ended situations only. However, the implications of these ÄUKPUNZHYLSLZZJSLHY6ULPU[LYWYL[H[PVUOVSKZ[OH[VWLULUKLKZP[\H[PVUZ are more taxing and require more executive control, hence making them more sensitive to EF impairments, whereas highly constrained tasks provide more structure and organization, thereby relieving the EF demands (Gioia et al., 2002). Accordingly, it may be concluded that EF impairments in ASD are rather subtle, as they preferentially show up in taxing open-ended situations. An alternative view refers to the task impurity problem and suggests that poorer EF performance that is restricted to open-ended situations is not due to JVYLL_LJ\[P]LK`ZM\UJ[PVUI\[YLZ\S[ZMYVTKPɉJ\S[PLZ^P[OV[OLYWYVJLZZLZ inherent to unconstrained tasks. This view is recently gaining traction with several theories postulating that impairments on open-ended EF tasks may result from another underlying cause. For example, White (2013) stresses that unconstrained, open-ended tasks do not provide explicit instructions indicating what to do and how to do it, but that this information has to be inferred implicitly. She further hypothesizes that individuals with ASD have an impairment in ‘Inferring Implicit Information’ (Triple I impairment), due to TLU[HSPaPUN KPɉJ\S[PLZ \UKLYS`PUN [OLPY PTWHPYTLU[Z VU VWLULUKLK [HZRZ According to Gomot & Wicker (2012), executive processes closely rely on WYLKPJ[P]LHIPSP[PLZHSSV^PUNHÅL_PISLHKHW[H[PVU[VJOHUNPUNLU]PYVUTLU[HS contingencies. They argue that individuals with ASD are particularly poor at dealing with information that is rather unpredictable and less controllable (as in open-ended tasks), because they have a dysfunction in the ability to ZWVU[HULV\ZS`HKHW[WYLKPJ[PVUZPUHÅL_PISLTHUULY

)HZLKVUV\YÄUKPUNZ^LJHUJVUJS\KL[OH[PUKP]PK\HSZ^P[O(:+OH]L NLU\PULPTWHPYTLU[ZPUWYLWV[LU[YLZWVUZLPUOPIP[PVUHUKJVNUP[P]LÅL_PIPSP[` since these impairments were also found on highly constrained, ‘pure’ tasks. Additionally, subtle working memory problems are suggested, because NYV\WKPɈLYLUJLZ^LYLUV[MV\UKVUHOPNOS`JVUZ[YHPULK^VYRPUNTLTVY` [HZR HUK KLÄJP[Z VU [OL VWLULUKLK :WH[PHS >VYRPUN 4LTVY` [HZR ^LYL YLZ[YPJ[LK[V[OLTVZ[KPɉJ\S[JVUKP[PVU(ZWLYMVYTHUJLVU[OLLHZPLYI\[ equally open-ended conditions of the Spatial Working task was spared, this OPU[Z[OH[PTWHPYTLU[VU[OLTVZ[KPɉJ\S[JVUKP[PVU^HZUV[TLYLS`K\L[V

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