Among the work of carpenters and carvers, were sculptures carved in female forms from ivory or wood. The figures in this photograph represent Tongan gods and were part of early Tongan religion. Figures were displayed during the Kava Kuo Heka Exhibition in July 2009 in Tonga. Photograph by Malia Talakai.
73 Photograph 3: Kali or headrest
Several kali were displayed during the Kava Kuo Heka Exhibition in Tonga in July 2009. Photograph by Malia Talakai.
As mentioned earlier, kali or headrests were also produced by tufunga belonging to the carpentry and woodworking domain. Considered a production of the male domain, neck rests were produced for chiefs. It is not clear whether this art is originally Tongan but its function as a head and neck rest is clearly shared with other islands, such as Samoa and Fiji. According to Kaeppler (1999b:16), neck rests are still part of the necessary ceremonial gifts for weddings; they still exist in Tonga but are rarely produced today due largely to the introduction of pillows.
74 Photograph 4: Kumete/Kava bowl
A kumete or the kava bowl displayed during the Kava Kuo Heka Exhibition in Tonga in July 2009.
Photograph by Malia Talakai.
Like the earlier objects referred to, the kumete or kava bowl (Photograph 4) is also an art form that required specialized skills. According to Kaeppler, kava bowls were among the most important portable objects because they were used in social and political events such as investments of titles, weddings and funerals of chiefs (1999b: 19). The significance of kava in Tongan society can be traced back to Tongan mythology and has been institutionalised as an important ritual expressing relationships between gods, chiefs and people. Ritual movements called the milolua are associated with the kava ceremony, and these rituals are still practiced. The king’s kava ceremony is referred to as the taumafa kava and is the highest and most prestigious of all kava ceremonies. Performing the taumafa kava, according to Kaeppler (1999b: 20), is necessary to the political order as it is seen as a “social contract among chiefs, people and gods”.
Tufunga langafale / House builder
While building was an occupation held by specialised tufunga fale, tu`a men were involved in other non-specialised labour categories. Some tufunga were restricted to building only the houses of chiefs or large houses on the mala`e (meeting area). Tufunga build houses for chiefs, meeting
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houses and sleeping quarters for people. The houses of the chiefs were distinguished by “complex rafter formations and rafter lashings or lalava that incorporate designs formed from coconut fibre sennit of two colours” (Kaeppler 1999b: 15). Tongan houses were distinctively different from Samoan or Fijian houses, yet all employ lashing or lalava for both functional and aesthetic purposes in building chiefs’ houses. It is not clear which island originally used lashing for functional or aesthetic purposes.
Tufunga tā maka / Rock construction
Tufunga maka is another craft practiced by male specialists. The two rock formations highlighted
in photograph 5 and 6 are of Ha`amonga `a Maui and `Otu Langi, both linked to the Tu`i Tonga lineage (Māhina 2003). While the Ha`amonga is believed to mark the gateway to the residence of the Tu`i Tonga, Tu`i-Ta-Tu`i, the `Otu Langi are raised burial mounds built for the Tu`i Tonga (Māhina 2003). These stone monuments were constructed at the request of the high chiefs. Other rock formations include monuments such as `esi (platform mounts built for the chiefs),
ha`amonga `a maui (gateways to chiefs’ houses) and `otu langi (huge elevated rectangular stone
constructions for ancient gravesites of the highest-ranking lines). Stone constructions are not unique to Tonga, as they also appear in other Pacific islands such as Easter Islands and Tahiti. It is not clear how and when stone construction started in Tonga and to what degree these practices in Tonga are influenced by other Pacific islands or vice versa. However, stone monuments persist as reminders of the skills and strength of Tongan people.
76 Photograph 5: Langi-Namoala31
The Langi-Namoala in Lapaha is the burial ground of the former Kauhala `uta royal lineage and continues to be used by descendants of the Kauhala`uta. Photograph adapted from Google/Wikipedia.
The burial site for the Tu`i Tonga and of the Tu`i Ha`a Takalaua is situated on land and estate of Noble Kalaniuvalu of Lapaha. The men in the photograph are the nima tapu (the sacred hands). They earn this title because at the death of the King, they are the undertakers. Their hands become sacred to touch anything else until the period of mourning is lifted. Those that are considered nima tapu belong to a tufunga group that specialises in performing the funeral rites of kings and nobles.
77 Photograph 6: Ha`amonga `a Maui
The Ha`amonga is an example of the skills and expertise associated with traditional rock construction. Photograph by Karlijn Haagsman, used with permission.
Tufunga lalava / Lashing
Lalava is another example of work performed by a specialised tufunga lalava. Visual evidence of lalava can be found in John Webber’s drawings during Cook’s 1777 voyage to Tonga (Crowe
1994). Lashing is associated with various domains such as carpentry, woodworking and tapa production. It serves a functional purpose to bind and connect joints or structures of houses or canoes. Crowe (1994) argues that its structural function was its original purpose, but this later developed into a more decorative and aesthetic appreciation. Although Crowe’s argument is true in relation to functional development, he avoids referring to lalava as both functional and aesthetic, a dual nature of Tongan art that Māhina (2003) and Tohi (2002) refer to.
The aesthetic characteristics of lalava are what Māhina (in Tohi 2002: 6) refers to as “an abstraction of real life experiences [where] ancient masters ingeniously and creatively develop formal and thematic lalava geometric designs, or kupesi, such as amoamokofe, fa`onelua, fisi`iniu and
manulua amongst, which were connected with house building and boat building”. I would add
that the designs or patterns inherent in lalava also form a prominent part of other decorative arts, such as in bark cloth, mats and on war clubs.
78 Photograph 7: Functional lalava
Photograph 7 is an image taken of an old house in Tonga. This clearly shows that lalava is both functional and aesthetic. The work was done by the late Tamale of Niutoua who was a tufunga lalava. Tamale also took under his wing several Tongan students, including Sopolemalaga Filipe Tohi who has revived this traditional art form. Filipe has also worked with contemporary material in his work. Some of his more contemporary work uses wool and string instead of coconut sinnet. Photograph by Kolokesa Uafa Māhina-Tuai.
79 Photograph 8: Functional lalava
Photograph 8 by Kolokesa Uafa Māhina-Tuai. Tufunga tā tatau / Master tattooist
The art of tā tatau or tattooing was held by a specialized tufunga tā tatau (Māhina 2010c). The
tufunga tā tatau not only held the skills to perform the tattooing but also possessed the knowledge
of patterns and motifs. As a permanent form of body decoration, traditionally it was associated with rank, status and genealogy (Kaeppler 2008). From the illustration provided by d’Urville (in photograph 9), the motifs used bear similar resemblance to those used in other Tongan arts such as in bark cloth, mats, war clubs and lashing. There is very limited information available on traditional Tongan tattooing. The only early evidence that we have is a detailed illustration that the French explorer Jules Dumont d’Urville included in his journal. The photograph consists of a Tongan man with a tattoo similar to the Samoan male tattoo. This illustration is the only evidence of tattooing in early Tongan society.
This limited information on Tongan tattoo also fails to clarify its functions in society apart from aesthetic appeal and as body ornament and decoration. The practice of traditional tattooing in Tonga was thought to have been abandoned soon after European contact and the arrival of the missionaries. It was outlawed in Tonga in 1883 (Allen 2010). According to Allen (2010), both Tongan men and women wore tattoos in ancient Tonga, with men wearing tattoos similar to the Samoan male tattoo while women’s tattoos were limited to the arms, inside of the hands and fingers. Men’s tattoo in Tonga is believed to have been done in the same manner as the Samoan tattoo. The process is believed to have been a mark of manhood in ancient Tonga, particularly
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considering the long and painful process as evidenced by the amount of heavy black coverage in the tattoo (Allen 2010). It is not clear whether tattooing is originally Tongan or whether this was a Samoan influence. What is clear is that tattooing was practiced in other Polynesian islands such as Samoa and Tahiti and in Aotearoa.