10. MALFORMACIONES CRANEOFACIALES
10.1. Fisuras craneofaciales 1 Labio y paladar fisurado
Leadership is a fast moving research area and has many ambiguities over which styles and behaviours are the most effective. Difficulties of linking leadership with
organisational outcomes are particularly pronounced for the police, since common police performance measures are affected by multiple confounding factors.
The research conducted so far implies that there is virtually no reliable evidence of what impacts directly on police leadership styles. Indeed there is no one police leadership style which is common to all countries.
Police leadership research largely developed in North America in the 1970s as a response to the civil rights movement and the social unrest of the previous decade and coincided with the early development of community policing. Theories of general leadership had been developing over the previous thirty years and a shift had occurred from trying to identify "traits" that make a great leader, to looking more at behaviours and overall styles that could potentially be learnt rather than simply gifted at birth.
Some early studies in the 1970’s and the 1980’s by Jermier and Berkes and others concentrate on testing the assumption that autocratic, impersonal leadership was preferred by police officers and that quasi-military structure and leadership styles were essential to maintain centralised control (Brief et al, 1981; Kukyendall and Unsinger, 1982; Jermier and Berkes ,1979). The results suggested that there was no one leadership style practiced by police leaders and that there was a move away from the autocratic leadership approach to a more supportive and participative leadership approach.
TRANSFORMATIONAL AND TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP IN POLICING
-In the mid-1980s a new theory of leadership was developed. “Transformational
Leadership” is an approach where leaders concentrate on developing (or “transforming”) followers through a range of encouraging behaviours. The concept was developed into a
full leadership theory by Bass in 1985. His theory was applied to several police research enquiries in an attempt to discover the essentials of police leadership. The focus was not only on transformational leadership (motivation and inspiration of subordinates) but was also on transactional leadership (focus on rewards and discipline). The Bass based research found high levels of support for transformational and transactional (even laissez-faire leadership) behaviours in certain policing contexts. Transformational police leaders were perceived to be able to bring about change and transactional police leaders were perceived to be less likely to bring about change (Densten 2003; Schwarzwald, et al 2001; Bass 1985).
POLICE JOB SATISFACTION AND MORALE
- Research into police leadershiphas been sparse in developing common findings. However, on the topic of job
satisfaction and morale two surveys standout
.
In 1979, Jermier and Berkes, explored police leadership styles especially relating to the transformational (participative and supportive) style. Their findings were that a
participative and supportive style positively related to job satisfaction and organisational commitment.
A Home Office sponsored study (Dobby et al, 2004) was conducted with the police in 2004 in the United Kingdom (UK) which involved a survey with responses from 1,066 police officers in England and Wales. Participants were asked to rate their line manager against a transformational leadership style. They also completed questions on how their line managers' behaviour may affect them psychologically. It was found that leaders who scored high for transformational behaviours could have positive psychological impacts on subordinates.
Overall, the findings (Dobby et al, 2004; Jermier and Berkes, 1979) suggest that supportive, participative and more generally transformational leadership styles have a positive impact on subordinates' job satisfaction. Little evidence was shown that
transactional style adversely affects police job satisfaction.
POLICE PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT
- On the issue of police performanceimprovement and motivation the research referenced below produced similar results. In a comparative study in America between police transformational leadership and transactional leadership, it was found that transformational leadership is more effective than transactional leadership in encouraging subordinates to exert extra effort (Morreale, 2002). The findings were supported by Sarver's study of the leadership style of Texan Police Chiefs (Sarver, 2008), which relied on self-completion surveys by 161 chiefs. (The fact that the subordinates of the 161 chiefs were not consulted detracted from the findings).
Another survey in 2004 in Nigeria (Adebayo, 2005) of 184 police officers found that perceptions of workplace fairness and transformational leadership behaviour were positively related to participants' work motivation.
Further to this Kuykendall and Unsinger (Kuykendall and Unsinger, 1982) administered a self-completion survey to 155 police managers attending training programmes in Arizona and California, which sought to measure the participants' own leadership style. This study using a pre-existing survey instrument by Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H. (1977) which divided leadership into four behaviours: 'Telling'; 'Selling'; 'Participating' and 'Delegating'. The results found that the police managers used 'participating' the most, along with 'telling' and 'selling'. The 'delegating' style was infrequently used. The 'participating' management style was perceived to result in better performance. Overall, the studies reveal that transformational leadership may be more effective at encouraging subordinates to exert extra effort than transactional leadership. Also those supportive and particularly participative styles are positively related to subordinates'
organisational commitment and performance.
POLICE PERCEPTIONS AND COMPETENCIES
- On the topic of perceptions ofleader effectiveness and their competencies, there is interesting research
.
A New Zealand study in 1987 was conducted to find whether there are preferred leadership styles and behaviours amongst police officers (Singer, 1987). Participants gave better effectiveness ratings to leaders that displayed transformational leadership behaviour (particularly 'individualised consideration') more frequently than most transactional or laissez-faire behaviours. However, the transactional behaviour of 'management-by-exception' was preferred over the transformational behaviours of 'charisma' and 'intellectual stimulation.'
“The Scottish Police Service Leadership Study”
(Hawkins and Dulewicz, 2009)used '360 degree' surveys to provide feedback on 120 police leaders from first line managers up. The results found evidence that different ranks respond differently to leadership styles. Goal-oriented or transactional leadership was perceived as the most effective leadership style for leadership of sergeants.
Two American studies have tested the validity of a competency model for executive police leadership (Silva 2004; Weiss 2004.) The study involved interviewing eight high performing senior leaders in one American force about essential characteristics for a police leader. This resulted in a list of 24 core competencies being produced. Four of the competencies were identified as most important: credibility; leading employees;
Weiss went on to develop a 360 degree feedback tool, based on the top 12 of the 24 competencies identified in the first phase study. The 12 competencies were:
Active Listening Communicating
Managing organisational change Organisation commitment Setting vision and strategy Knowledge of the organisation Leading employees
Courage
Managing politics and influencing Credibility
Self-confidence and Empowering
The 2004 Home Office study (Dobby et al, 2004) included interviews with 150 police officers of all ranks to identify competencies considered essential for effective police leadership. A repertory grid technique was used, which allowed participants to describe effective leadership in their own words, with reference to six leaders they had encountered during their career. In total, 53 behaviours were identified and 50 of those
related to transformational leadership
.
Researchers such as Dobby (2004) started to focus on the police during the early 2000’s, especially concentrating on core leadership competencies for senior police officers (Weiss, 2001; Silva, 2004; Devitt, 2008; Dobby et al, 2004). They went back to styles and behaviours and competencies. Dobby et al assisted in the creation of the current NPIA list of competencies for senior police leaders which are, serving the public, leading change, leading people, managing performance, professionalism, decision making, working with others (See Appendix ‘D’ for list obtained from NPIA January 2012). Overall, the above mentioned six studies concentrated on the differences between 'transformational' and 'transactional' leaders and all found that transformational leaders were seen as more effective and more likely to elicit compliance from their subordinates. There was also evidence, however, that transactional behaviours could have positive outcomes in this area and that mixing styles could be best. The studies also identified
traits or competencies required by a leader (Dobby et al, 2004; Silva 2004; Weiss 2004.) As a consequence competencies of police leaders began to emerge.
POLICE ETHICS AND EMOTIONS
- Other studies involving ethical police leadershipand emotional intelligence have started to gain credibility.
Ethical police leadership began to be studied in the late 2000’s (Huberts et al, 2008) and Huberts et al report a Dutch study found evidence that leader behaviour, particularly setting a good example and enforcing ethical codes of conduct, can positively influence integrity violations by subordinates. The study findings suggest police leaders can discourage integrity violations through displaying exemplary behaviour.
Emotional intelligence has also started to be a new area in police leadership.Emotional intelligence has been defined as “an ability to recognise and manage emotions in oneself and others” (Hawkins and Dulewicz 2007p.68). Emotional intelligence has been viewed as a leadership characteristic by recent researchers (Hawkins and Dulewicz 2007). The Hawkins and Dulewicz, 2007 Scottish Police leadership study (previously cited) tested links between emotional intelligence and performance as a leader. The results provided support for a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and performance as a leader.
A study within an American police force (Murphy, 2007) which involved the researcher joining study participants in the normal course of their duties, explored the potential impact of inspirational leaders in a large metropolitan American police organisation. Transformational leaders were found to be able to challenge the dominant regimes and police officers could emotionally connect with them.
The emotional attachment to the leaders by subordinates allowed the researchers to conclude that leaders who demonstrated values with those of followers and "walked - the - talk" were admired by police officers. Just as important, the culture of the police force was found to be an important influence on the emergence of transformational leadership. The research concluded a collectivist culture was best.
Overall, the studies of ethical and emotional leadership styles brought up a number of contradictions. Murphy (2007) also points out the importance of culture which a number of the previous police research papers only superficially touched upon. However, it is evident that the years ahead will allow for further research into ethics and emotions in
police leadership style
.
In summary, the literature supports the view that policing requires an approach to leadership that differs to other sectors, but maintains the ability to make urgent
operational command decisions (Command and Control). Effective police leaders also need to embrace participative and supportive styles, competencies and behaviours. It is evident that most research in police leadership is based on Western studies. No published research to date has been found on police leadership styles in the UAE. This study will address this imbalance.