Formación de ciudadanos en clave glocal: un asunto de principios

A contributor to systems thinking (Midgley, 1997, Midgley, 2000, Midgley, 2003) provided arguments and discussion that placed the perspectives of the philosophers of science, and the architects of systems thinking, in a coherent framework. This author strongly supported the need to consider scientific philosophyin scientific research, and refuted the argument that philosophy is not relevant. He dissected the

contribution of Popper (as well as the philosophers Kelly and Habermas), and placed limitations on the circumstances their principles were able to inform. He reported case studies conducted in the field of social science, however he expressly identified the issues of global climate change and sustainability as issues that exemplify interconnectedness, and thus require a systemic approach, particularly with regard to intervention. He has provided a generalised framework for the treatment of research encompassing ethical judgments. His philosophy and practical approach have been identified here as a leading contribution to systems thinking, providing a theoretical basis for a proposed development of LCA methodology (Sect. 4.4).

2.7.1 Introduction to philosophical perspectives

At least one philosopher has directly addressed the ethical and philosophical foundation of food-energy relationships (Johnson, 1984). He argued that (p151):

“ the concept of a product is normative. Technically, all inputs that enter a production process come out. Part of the output possesses the property of goodness; this part is called product. Those parts that are valueless are called wastes. Those parts that possess the property of badness are also called wastes, but are further identified with such terms as pollutants, noxious wastes, etc.”

He continued to explain that to think of ratios such as energy indicators as technical, value-free positivistic knowledge would in fact be meaningless. Nonetheless he argued that positivistic research, which he regarded as the overriding domain of scientific inquiry, has an essential place in food-energy research. He argued further that the outcomes of positivistic studies, such as energy indicators, were not sufficient in themselves to provide a basis for problem solving or decision-making.

Johnson (1984) held that the dominant philosophy of the biological and physical sciences is logical positivism, where experience and logic are the criteria for decision making. He implied that scientific philosophers regard logical positivism as obsolete, but that scientific practice has yet to respond to this guidance. He advised that normativistic12 approaches could be regarded as providing objective normative

knowledge; an achievement that has been considered impossible by logical positivists. He preferred pragmatism as providing a way forward by dealing with positive and normative knowledge simultaneously, but conceded that in practice it could prove cumbersome.

An alternative, and arguably acceptable practice he described is for positive and normative knowledge to be derived independently, and used together to solve problems. This conclusion constitutes the philosophical support for the proposal in Sect. 4.4 for a more systemic overarching approach to LCA methodology.

This author also discussed the significance of market and price systems. Monetary values were argued to reflect consumer value judgments, and provide information beyond that contained in energy units. In my study, energy studies reported in

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Normativistic science takes the position that knowledge of the goodness or badness of situations is a valid and necessary precondition for prescriptive knowledge.

monetary terms were found to be of low utility because they do not retain their meaning over time or in settings other than their primary context. However, Johnson (1984) identified the need for common currency as a critical requirement for making ethical judgments. The present study has identified (loss of) biodiversity as a common currency for decisions impacting food supply chains and sustainability. Johnson (1984) identified food-energy research as a domain that is inherently value- full, demanding multi-disciplinary methods built on philosophies that give adequate regard to normative knowledge in the key areas of identifying assumptions, solving problems or building strategies.

2.7.2 Scientific philosophy and systems thinking

Midgley (2000) argued that while philosophy is commonly regarded as standing above methodology in a hierarchical sense, and methodology above practice it is preferable to regard philosophy, methodology and practice as “mutually supportive”. This view is undoubtedly more sophisticated than the hierarchical view, but even so the simpler view of philosophy underlying both method and practice is the premise of this chapter. The present discussion challenges some of the norms of scientific observation and intervention in the context of sustainability issues, and with particular reference to sustainability indicators. It is argued that such a challenge should be built on first principles, and that those principles are embodied in the thinking of the philosophers of science. The literature of systems thinking has paid close attention to scientific philosophy, and the discussion here follows that pattern. Three philosophers (Popper, Polanyi and Bohm) have provided principles that when applied to food supply issues (Johnson, 1984), provide a fundamental basis for the arguments

developed herein concerning presuppositions embodied in indicators derived through LCA methodology.

2.7.2.1 The nature of scientific knowledge

Of particular relevance to the present work is an explanation of how scientific knowledge is built (Popper, 1972) . This philosopher argued that problems precede observations (rather than vice versa) and that (p258):

“The growth of knowledge proceeds from the old problems to new problems, by means of conjectures and refutations.”

He further argued that knowledge is gained by conceiving an inadequate explanation, and then criticising or refuting it. He presented an inverse analogy between the “evolutionary tree”, in which species diverge over time, and the “tree of knowledge”, in which divergent knowledge converges to unified theories. Popper (1972) also discussed the notion of objective truth, a concept that has considerable relevance to the nature of knowledge in the present field of study.

The key philosophical principle inferred from Popper (1972) is a paradigmatic pattern of scientific knowledge-building that is so obvious that it is seldom articulated. That is, that the findings of scientific work, having been examined by peers and remaining unfalsified, become the building blocks for future science. This principle is of crucial significance to sustainability studies, where numerical indicators are constructed in part from ‘truth’ in the form of unfalsified published values derived from earlier studies. Issues can potentially arise where the assumptions of a particular value are not fully known, and an accumulative effect occurs where that value, with its assumptions, is built into subsequently published work.

2.7.2.2 The nature of the universe and systems thinking

A significant early contributor to quantum theory has subsequently extended his contribution from physics to the philosophical arena (Bohm, 1980). This author offered new insights into the nature of the universe itself that constitute a significant advance to modern scientific philosophy. The thinking of Bohm (1980) is reflected strongly in more recent work closely aligned to the present field of study (Giampietro, 2004), and is consistent with the philosophies of at least some systems thinkers (Beer, 1984, Midgley, 2003). Bohm (1980) explained that our entire mode of thinking is based on the notion of matter consisting of discrete particles, a model that he rejects as inconsistent with the wave – particle duality of quantum physics.

Bohm (1980) introduced his concept of implicate order. He wrote extensively about the wholeness and interconnectedness of matter, expressing interconnectedness as a logical ramification of quantum theory and offering a number of sophisticated

analogies to demonstrate his insight. The author described matter as existing in a flow, or enfolding-unfolding flux. He acknowledged an affinity of his ideas with Eastern traditions of thinking rather Western. This link with Eastern traditions is also reflected in the work of some systems thinkers (Beer, 1981).

The ‘connectedness’ of observer and observed is a theme that is developed further by Midgley (2000). The concept has ramifications for the sustainability context of my study, and for the LCA methodology.

2.7.2.3 Tacit knowledge

An earlier philosopher introduced the subjects of personal knowing and tacit knowledge (Polanyi, 1958, Polanyi, 1966). This influential author argued that

knowing is a personal process, and that knowledge is built on the personal framework of experience, skill and even emotion that constitutes human experience. He further argued that observers cannot separate themselves from the observed. Polanyi (1966) developed the concept of tacit knowing, holding that individuals know a great deal more than they can articulate, and that knowledge that can be articulated depends on a bank of tacit knowledge that cannot be expressed.

The concepts expressed by Polanyi (1958) provide support for arguments developed herein: firstly as direct support for understanding the nature of knowledge reported in the present field of study, and secondly, as inferred support for a parallel model describing knowledge encompassed in a field of study, and tacitly ‘owned’ by a contemporaneous scientific community.

2.7.2.4 The philosophy underlying the present research

The relevance to the present study of the principles espoused by these thinkers (Bohm, 1980, Johnson, 1984, Midgley, 2000, Polanyi, 1966) is that:

- Knowledge is built on other knowledge; knowledge that contains elements that the builders of that knowledge were not aware of, and could not articulate,

- the elements of this knowledge are connected to each other in unknown ways, and - food-energy studies are further complicated by tacit normative knowledge that may not be understood and acknowledged by the researcher.

Having established that global food chains are characterised by a high level of complexity, extending beyond the fields typically associated with the application of scientific method, we proceed to examine the nature of that complexity. Systems thinking has provided an approach for understanding complexity, and provides methods that would supplement LCA methodology.