Formación en paradigmas emancipadores, desafío de la EP

This section will describe shifts in depositional activity according to material categories. Visible significant changes in the treatment of materials in the assemblage between the PPNA and PPNB were not seen in depositions of scapulae, animal jaws, human crania, clay, plaster, unworked stone, ground stone, chipped stone, horn or antler. In the case of chipped stone, there were no instances of structured depositions in the PPNA, and only 5 during the PPNB. Other materials that cannot be compared as they appear only in the PPNB include: human tooth; digit and long bone, animal tooth; knucklebone and claw, shell, seed, ceramic and marble. (It may well be that the unspecified ground stone recorded in the PPNA and earlier periods may have been made of marble or some other stone, but as they were not specifically identified they cannot be used in this analysis).

Significant shifts in depositional activity are seen in animal head parts, animal crania, clay, all ground stones combined, all bones, and all non-bones. Although no statistically significant shifts are seen in the following materials, it is worth noting that the deposition of scapulae, human crania and human bone increase during the PPNB, while deposits of clay, horn, antler and animal head elements decrease.

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Ground stone in general included all instances of worked stone except chipped and unworked stone. Specially-deposited instances number 26 from the PPNA and before, and 24 from the PPNB. The only known stone type from the PPNA was limestone (n=23, 3 unknown). Basaltic rock was commonly used to make fancy pestles and bowls; and marble was used to make bracelets, but none of these were specially deposited. The slight decrease in PPNB stone depositions is not seen in a proportional decrease in limestone (n=18) but rather the addition of marble, often shaped into dishes or tools.

The most significant shift in ground stone deposition is from the floor in the PPNA to anywhere else during the PPNB (Table 6.49a). During the PPNA, ground stone was

deposited preferentially on the floor at a rate greater than 4:1; while in the PPNB, the shift away from the floor at a ratio of 1:4. This may be due to heavy reuse of broken ground stone implements as structural support in walls, pillars or benches. Another interesting shift is from within to without structures. Ground stone objects are 12 times more likely to be placed inside a structure during the PPNA, yet only twice as likely to be found within a structure during the PPNB. In addition, only 1 ground stone deposition was recorded in a domestic structure. Finally, in the PPNA, ground stone objects were far more likely to be alone while, in the PPNB, ground stone objects were more likely to be placed in groups or caches. The placement of ground stone objects in caches is interesting, as it shows a separate function from structural placement. The physical and spiritual reinforcement of walls is often derived from the placement of individual items within the structure, yet caches of items if placed too near each other could actually disrupt the physical stability of dry stone walls.

The use of clay also shifts in terms of visibility, fragmentation, elaboration and quantity (Table 6.49b). Specially deposited clay objects are restricted to the Zagros and Middle Euphrates regions during the PPNA, with only 9 known instances:a necklace and a box from the Euphrates, and 6 sets of pillars from the Zagros and Upper Mesopotamian area. Clay is known from the Batman and Urfa regions during the period contemporary with the PPNA. At Hallan Çemi circular platforms were made from clay, and clay was used as mortar at Göbekli tepe. Interestingly, there is no evidence for figurines or shaped clay from either site; clay was strictly architectural. It is not that clay was not available in the Batman and Urfa regions, but that it was not seen as a material from which objects appropriate for ritual deposition were made.

During the PPNA, clay objects were rarely broken, rarely placed invisibly, almost never singly deposited, and there is only one instance of clay shaped into a figurine. In stark contrast, the 7 clay objects of the PPNB are as likely to be singly as multiply placed; are usually difficult or impossible to see; and twice as likely to be in figurine shape than in any other shape. The use of clay in structured depositions spread south to the Levant, north to the Taurus, and west to the Lake District, while still being used in the Ergani Plain, Zagros and Northern Euphrates regions.

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New emphasis on the frailty and individual relationships to the human form is seen during the PPNB, as many specially-deposited clay objects are anthropomorphic figurines. The shift from large clay pillars at Qermez Dere and Nemrik 9 to diminutive representations at Höyücek and Cafer höyük shows a kind of miniaturization of the human image.

The ritual use of animal crania is rarely contested. Interestingly, the number of identifiable structured deposits of animal crania decreases between the PPNA and PPNB (Table 6.49c). There is a definite decrease also in the species deposited. During the PPNA depositions of crania of boar (Çayönü); goat (Zagros); sheep (Batman) and aurochs (Batman, Levant, North Euphrates) are seen, while in the PPNB, species are restricted to aurochs (Konya; North Euphrates; and Çayönü), with 1 sheep skull from the Zagros region. This conservatism is seen also in specific and broad locations. During the PPNA, animal crania are 3 times more likely to be placed on a wall or bench than in a midden, pit or grave; and half as likely to be found outside of structures as within. On the other hand, PPNB

depositions of animal crania are four times as likely to be found in visible locations such as walls, benches and niches, and entirely within the confines of structures. Skulls are rarely combined with other objects in either period; the only example of composite materiality is the skull with a red polished stone in its mouth from Hallan Çemi.

Grouping together all animal cranialelements (jaw, tooth, antler, horn, tusk and calvarium), there is no shift in specific location, visibility, orientation, elaboration or quantity between the PPNA and earlier (n=25) and the PPNB (n=13). In both periods, animal cranial elements are more likely to be found in a structure, horizontally-placed, invisible, and single (Table 6.49d). The one statistically significant shift is in the types of materials. Animal cranial elements deposited during the PPNA and earlier were seven times more likely to be made of a single material. The three instances of composite depositions involving animal head parts contemporary with the PPNA and before are a pile of burnt gazelle horns and skull elements fused to a limestone crucible from ‘Abr; 2 different species of deer antler placed so as to cross each other and set into plaster at Hallan Çemi, and the aurochs skull with a red stone in its mouth, also from Hallan Çemi. None of these 3 shows another material being applied to or on the animal bone. In the first 2 cases, the deformation is incidental. By the PPNB, the proportion of single to composite materials is equal, with the majority of composite depositions being clusters of various types of materials including animal head parts. The clusters include plaster poured onto an irregular pile of cobbles, clay flakes and bones from Pınarbaşı, a cluster of antler, mandible and knucklebone placed on a threshold from Höyücek; and 3 clusters of mixed animal bone from Kerkh. This may

demonstrate a change in the inviolability or strength associated with the bone that had previously been respected.

The numbers of animal bone, animal head parts and animal crania all decreased between the PPNA and PPNB. Human bone, on the other hand, increased and the proportion of human crania increased from ¼ of the human bone to nearly 100%.

Human crania, though without any statistically significant correlations, do show some interesting trends (Table 6.49e). The lack of statistical significance may be due to the

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small number of depositions. Half of the depositions during the earlier period were found in the fill of a structure or a midden area. There is some regional variation. From Qermez Dere and Nemrik 9 skulls are placed or dug into hut infill. There is 1 attempt to bury a skull in a cemetery, and it is the only such burial at Nemrik 9. 2 crania were placed in a post hole in the earliest communal building at Jerf el-Ahmar; with another 3 in an outdoor oven, covered with a stone. Aside from the burial at Nemrik 9, all of these skulls could easily be interpreted as abandonment or closing deposits. All deposits of human skulls corresponding to the PPNA were invisible. During the PPNB, nearly half of the human crania had been deposited in pits, and none were recovered from fills or middens. There were 3 pits with a pair of human skulls each from Nevalı Çori; an upside-down skull in a pit from Boncuklu; 2 red- coloured skulls in pits or hollows from Abu Hureyra; a skull built into a wall from Abu

Hureyra; and three different skulls placed on coloured pedestals from Mureybet. While the majority of skulls were again invisible, at least 3 from Mureybet had been placed so as to be clearly visible.

During the PPNA, crania were equally likely to be found within or without a

structure, yet during the PPNB, crania were over 4 times as likely to be found in a structure, and all instances were either inside or next to a domestic structure. This may demonstrate a shift in many disparate practices to a more codified, conservative practice.

Looking at all bone, human and animal, there is no apparent shift in placement, quantity or number of types of materials used in deposited objects between the earlier and later periods. There is, however a very significant shift in the fragmentation and visibility of bone depositions (Tables 6.47 and 6.49f). The fragmentation ratios do not follow the

general trend, wherein greater destruction is seen of objects deposited during the PPNB. Interestingly, there is no shift in cardinal location, as might be expected based on previous statistics. The high number of animal bone depositions in the northern periphery during the PPNB outweighs the lack of depositions in the southern periphery during the PPNB. Again, this may be the result of a crystallization of practice during the PPNB.

All Bone Broke Not Invisible Not Clearly Not North Other

PPNA n=45 8 3 5 30 23 12 3 (Hu-2, Anim-1) 19 PPNB n=43 4 11 26 12 10 28 14 (Hu-1 Anim-13) 23

P=0.0447 P<0.0001 P=0.0010 P= 0.0738 (not quite signif) Table 6.47 Statistically significant correlations between bone deposits.

Looking at depositions of all non-bone materials, there are significant shifts in placement, visibility and broad location over time (Tables 6.48 and 6.49g). Nonorganic objects are far more likely to be located within structures during the earlier period, while

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the gap decreases during the PPNB. In terms of visibility, the low likelihood of a non-bone object during the PPNA being invisible slowly changes to a predominance of partially visible deposits during the PPNB. The greater proportion of vertical and embedded objects in the PPNA is due to the presence of pillars.

Not Bone In

struc

Not Invisible Not Clearly Not Vert + V emb Horiz + H emb PPNA n=37 35 2 7 27 16 18 24 5 PPNB n=51 33 17 19 27 8 38 12 12 P=0.0014 P=0.0579 (not quite) P<0.0001 P= 0.0176 Table 6.48 Statistically significant correlations between non-bone deposits

PPNA Ground stone PPNB Ground stone

Floor In structure Only one item

Anywhere but floor

In structure = outside of structures In a cache

PPNA Animal crania PPNB Animal crania

Many species Wall or bench Outside structure

Fewer species

More visible specific locations In structure

PPNA Human crania PPNB Human crania

Abandonment or closing deposit Invisible In fill - - - In pits In/next to dom struc

PPNA All not-bone PPNB All not-bone

In a structure Clearly visible Vertical Not in a structure Invisible Horizontal

Table 6.49 a-g: Summary of general trends for main material (a- ground stone; b- clay; c- animal crania; d- all cranial elements; e- human crania; f- all bone; g- all non-bone materials).

PPNA Clay PPNB Clay

Whole Not invisible In a group Only 1 figurine Broken Invisible

Single = multiple pieces Most are figurines

PPNA All cranial elements

PPNB All cranial elements

Single material Composite material

PPNA All bone PPNB All bone

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6.4.3.7 Fragmentation, Elaboration and Decoration shifts between the PPNA and PPNB