Fortalecimiento de capacidades

The acquisition of skills and knowledge is known to occur through a number of different modalities. For instance, experiential learning theory (e.g., Kolb, 1984; Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001) suggests that knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Experiential learning focuses on the integration of theory with practical work-based delivery, both of which play a role in the development of the ‘task mastery’ construct of self-efficacy. As a prerequisite to experiential learning however, the learner must engage in the experience as it occurs, whilst it is also essential that they retrospectively critically reflect and analyse the experience (Eyler, 2009; Kolb & Kolb, 2005). It is also important to note though, that such critical reflection is not simply ‘thinking’ or ‘remembering’ a past event; it is an “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusion to which it tends” (Dewey, 1933, p. 9).

Whilst individual reflective practice can offer considerable benefits to individual teachers and classrooms, it need not be a solitary action. In fact, Kelchtermans (2009) stipulated that reflection is a communal process which necessitates dialogue whilst Conway et al. (2009) argue that CPD programmes should include opportunities for teachers to engage in ongoing reflective engagement “...to interactively examine practice in new ways and to share practice expertise and dilemmas with peers in a community of learners” (p. xxix). Moreover, the use of systematic and rigorous reflective practice is widely reported to be one of the most useful methods to foster positive intellectual, professional, and personal development (Rodgers, 2002). Structured reflection, when integrated into regular practice, can help to shape the attitudes and identities of both experienced and newly qualified teachers (Ryan, 2005; Walkington, 2005). Furthermore, this may enable teachers to manage their emotions when dealing with difficult child behaviour (Shoffner, 2011).

Programmes designed to improve classroom behaviour may not be easily applied by teachers in their own classroom. Thus, reflection upon what does and does not work, may serve to refine any learned strategies whilst reflective communities of practice provide a forum through which an individual’s subjective experience and successes may be shared, problems discussed, and solutions proposed. Teachers who share their own ideas regarding change and strategy implementation outcomes, offer learning opportunities to their colleagues and facilitate change that goes beyond their own classroom door. Reflection is intrinsic to the experiential learning cycle (see Figure 4.1). This cycle has been proposed as incorporating a spiral, rather than a circular process (Lam, 2011). Despite the stages being necessarily sequential, learners may enter this continuum at any stage depending on individual learning preferences (e.g., assimilator) (McCarthy, 2010).

Figure 4.1. Experiential learning cycle

On a related point, learning is differentiated by Jarvis (2012) into two distinct types: that resulting from primary experience (learning via one’s own participation) and secondary experience (learning vicariously from others). Secondary learning is a common approach underpinning many short CPD programmes. Such programmes are delivered as a once-off exercise with little opportunity for continued progression, reflection, and feedback. Thus, any positive effects of secondary learning (without reflection) may be short-lived. Primary learning, on the other hand, consists of time directly spent in engagement with an act, such as classroom management and is closer to what most researchers claim to be the process of experiential learning (e.g., Hicks, 1996; Knutson, 2009).

Nonetheless, neither experience nor reflection alone, guarantee learning. The process of learning can be optimised by skilled programme delivery professionals. Fowler (2008) argued that the meaningful interaction between experience and reflection (as directed by a programme facilitator) is an essential feature of programme or intervention delivery. It is imperative that those in a position to facilitate learning are themselves knowledgeable, skilful, and capable of communicating passion for the subject (Andresen, 2009). In adult education, the ‘facilitator as instructor’ guides self-directed learning and encourages critical reflection. Facilitation is a process of enablement whereby learners are guided by facilitators through a process of behavioural or attitudinal change (Harvey et al., 2002). Interestingly, Titchen (2004)

The occurence of concrete experiences

Learners make their observations and reflections Abstract concepts generalisations are formed Implications of concepts are applied and tested

envisions facilitation as ‘critical companionship’, whereby those with expertise accompany those who are newly qualified (or simply less experienced) on a learning journey. This model has been utilised primarily in healthcare (notably in nursing), where practitioners can readily work together towards enhancing practice through critical reflection and self-transformation.

The coaching model has also long been used as a viable method of teacher learning and professional development (Croft, Coggshall, Dolan, Powers, & Killion, 2010). Coaching may be regarded as a process of ongoing problem solving (Palmer, 2011; Reinke, Stormont, Webster-Stratton, Newcomer, & Herman, 2012). It is seen as both an alternative and an adjunct to traditional forms of professional development; in the coaching model, peers assist in the transmission of skills and knowledge learned in professional development into actual practice. Coaching from within a community with a shared set of symbols and language, offers teachers both information and social support. It has been suggested that there is a greater likelihood of ongoing strategy implementation by teachers in the classroom if they are coached by colleagues or by experts (Kretlow, Wood, & Cooke, 2011; Showers, Joyce, & Bennett, 1987). A number of different types of coaching have been discussed in the literature; these include ‘technical (expert-led) coaching’, ‘team building coaching’, and ‘reflective coaching’ (Denton & Hasbrouck, 2009). The first of these, technical coaching, focuses on professional development provided to teachers and the restructuring of classrooms with an ‘expert teacher’ leading a ‘novice’. An alternative form of coaching is that of collaborative problem solver, wherein the teacher’s identified concern(s) regarding students’ academic or behavioural development are systematically addressed through ongoing peer partnership. A second approach, team building coaching, is delivered by an active community of learners, who share common goals (e.g., positive classroom behaviour). This is thought to be the ideal way to engender change within an organisation as a whole. A further approach, cognitive (reflective practice) coaching, is conducted by encouraging teachers to reflect upon their teaching and management styles in novel manners. Teachers are supported by the coach in self-appraisal; they examine the relative success of current management techniques in light of best practice guidelines. Reflective practice coaching does not require the coach to be an expert in the field, but rather it gives the teacher the responsibility of systems change and

improvement (Denton & Hasbrouck, 2009). Teacher recognition of both the value of reflective practice and a need for improvement, are crucially important. However, for this model of coaching to be successfully enacted within a school, teachers need to be supported by school management.