A THE DIVISION OF POWER
In Germany, state power (‘Staatsgewalt’) is not centralised. Germany is divided into the Federal Republic/Federation (‘Bundesrepublik’ or ‘Bund’) as the main state (‘Zentralstaat’) and its constituent states (‘Länder’).2
Each state(‘Land’) is a member of the whole, but at the same time maintains its own state power; it is not fully independent, as otherwise the Federal Republic would be a confederation of states (‘Staatenbund’). The ‘Bund’ is a federal state (‘Bundesstaat’), a new state created by the joining together of its members.3
B THE PASSING OF LAWS
The‘Bund’ and the‘Länder’ are each entitled to pass laws(‘Gesetze’)4 and their respective competence to do so(‘Gesetzgebungskompetenz’) is laid down in the (federal) constitution (‘Grundgesetz’/GG/Basic Law).5
Article 70 GG lays down a presumption in favour of the competence of the‘Länder’, but the constitution allocates to the‘Bund’ the right to pass laws in the most important fields; this right is either exclusive (‘ausschließlich’: Article 71 GG) or concurrent (‘konkurrierend’: Article 72 GG) or permits the‘Bund’ to lay down a general framework (‘Rahmen’) for legislation by the ‘Länder’ (Article 75 GG).6
The law of the ‘Bund’, regardless of rank, takes precedence over that of the‘Länder’
(Article 31 GG: ‘Bundesrecht bricht Landesrecht’).7
C THE EXECUTIVE8
The administration (‘Verwaltung’) of Germany is divided between the‘Bund’ and the
‘Länder’ as carriers (‘Träger’) thereof. The key to an understanding of the term
‘Verwaltungsträger’ (carrier of administration) and, thus, of the construction of the executive in Germany is the recognition that‘Verwaltungsträger’ have specific‘Organe’
(organs) and (as a subsidiary term)‘Behörden’ (authorities).9
Executive power (‘vollziehende Gewalt’) is exercised in the following forms:
– administration by the‘Bund’ (‘bundeseigene Verwaltung’);
– administration by the‘Länder’ (‘landeseigene- or Landerverwaltung’);
– administration by the‘Länder’ on instruction by the‘Bund’ (‘Auftragsverwaltung’).10 The ‘Bund’ and the ‘Länder’ can administer either directly(‘unmittelbar’) or indirectly
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(‘mittelbar’) by delegation to other carriers. Such carriers of indirect state administration (‘Staatsverwaltung’) are the public (‘öffentliche’) corporations (‘Körperschaften’), institutions (‘Anstalten’) and foundations(‘Stiftungen’).11
The activity of the executive (‘Verwaltungstätigkeit’) is usually official (‘hoheitlich’). By contrast, however, it can also:
– act fiscally (‘fiskalisch’), ie, participate in the economy for commercial purposes (‘erwerbswrtschaftlich’; eg, as the owner or shareholder of an enterprise) or engage in accessory transactions (‘Hilfsgeschäfte’; eg, acquisition of goods); or
– perform its public functions (‘öffentliche Aufgaben’) in the forms available under private law: so called‘Verwaltungsprivatrecht’ or‘Verwaltung in Privatrechtsform’.12 Thus,‘Anstalten’ are part of the wider term‘öffentliche Einrichtungen’ (public facilities).
In each ‘Land’, the statute governing local authorities (the ‘Gemeindeordnung’)13 lays down a (public legal) right of admission (‘Zulassung’) for its residents (‘Einwohner’). The use (‘Benutzung’) of the relevant amenity itself can, however, be governed by private law.14 Although the executive has freedom of choice(‘Wahlfreiheit’), it remains bound to observe the restrictions of public law(‘öffentlich-rechtliche Bindungen’) generally
(eg, the basic rights).15
This so-called two-tier theory (‘Zweistufentheorie’) has the important procedural consequence that, depending on the party involved on the side of the executive, a dispute may fall within the jurisdiction of the administrative courts (§ 40 VwGO) or within that of the ordinary courts (§ 13 GVG).16
D THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE
The administration of justice in Germany is divided intofive branches (‘Zweige’):
– the ordinary jurisdiction(‘ordentliche Gerichtsbarkeit’);
– the employment jurisdiction(‘Arbeitsgerichtsbarkeit’);
– the (general) administrative jurisdiction(‘allgemeine Verwaltungsgerichtsbarkeit’);
– the social jurisdiction(‘Sozialgerichtsbarkeit’);
– the finance jurisdiction (‘Finanzgerichtsbarkeit’).17
The administration of justice is carried by the state, ie, the ‘Bund’ is responsible for the federal courts specified in the Basic Law and the‘Länder’ for the others (Article 92 GG).
E THE ‘RECHTSSTAAT’ PRINCIPLE
It is a founding and unalterable principle of the Basic Law that the ‘Bund’ and the
‘Länder’ are democratic and social republican states in which the rule of law prevails (‘Rechtsstaaten’) (Articles 20(i), 28(i) and 79(iii) GG).18
The ‘Rechtsstaat’ principle is a general legal principle and is only partially concretised in Article 20(iii) of the Basic Law. It also underlies, for example, Articles 19(iv), 101(i) and 103(i) and is the source of the principle of proportionality(‘Verhältnismäßigkeitsgrundsatz’).
Chapter II: The Federal State
Other important elements of the‘Rechtsstaat’ principle are the requirements of legal certainty(‘Rechtssicherheit’) and the protection of trust(‘Vertrauensschutz’), ie, reliance on particular laws and the (basic) prohibition of retrospective legislation (‘Rückwirkungsverbot’).19
F THE ORIGIN, SEPARATION AND BINDING OF STATE POWER
Article 20(ii) GG sets out other fundamental principles.
First, all state power (‘Staatsgewalt’) in the ‘Bund’ and the‘Länder’ springs from the people (‘Volk’): the principle of the sovereignty (or right of self-determination) of the people(‘Volkssouveranität’).
Secondly, state power is exercised by the people in elections and plebiscites: the principle of representative democracy.20
Thirdly, state power is exercised by separate special organs of the legislature (‘gesetzgebende Gewalt’/‘Gesetzgebung’), executive(‘vollziehende Gewalt’/‘Verwaltung’)and judicature(‘rechtsprechende Gewalt’/‘Rechtsprechung’):21 the principle of the separation
of powers (‘Gewaltenteilung’).22
By Article 20(iii) GG the legislature is bound to the constitutional order (‘verfassungsmäßige Ordnung’) and the executive and judicature to statute and law (‘Gesetz und Recht’).23
The binding(‘Bindung’) of the executive to statute is referred to as the‘Gesetzmäßigkeit der Verwaltung’ (‘Vorbehalt des Gesetzes’) and the priority of statute as the‘Vorrang des Gesetzes’.24
The Basic Law can be amended by the legislature—subject to approval by a qualified majority of two-thirds of the members of the Federal Parliament (‘Bundestag’) and two-thirds of the votes of the members of the Federal Council(‘Bundesrat’))—butArticle 79(iii) GG—the so-called perpetuity clause (‘Ewigkeitsklausel’)—forbids any changes to the federal structure of Germany or to the core constitutional principles set out in Articles 1 and 20 GG.
G THE ‘FREIHEITLICHE DEMOKRATISCHE GRUNDORDNUNG’
The ‘freiheitliche demokratische Grundordnung’ is the basic order of freedom and democracy upon which, by common consent, Germany is constructed. It includes:
– the ‘Rechtsstaat’ principle;
– the people’s right of self-determination(‘Selbstbestimmungsrecht’);
– the separation of powers;25
– the binding of the legislature to the constitutional order and of the executive and judiciary to statute and law;
– the multi-party system(‘Mehrparteiensystem’);26
– the independence of the judges(‘Unabhangigkeit der Richter’);27 – the basic rights;28
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– the ‘Rechtsschutzgarantie’.29
The concept of the ‘freiheitliche demokratische Grundordnung’ is occasionally used in German statutes, eg, in Article 18 GG (‘Verwirkung von Grundrechten’ (forfeiture of basic rights)), in Article 21 (ii) GG (‘Verfassungswidrigkeit von Parteien’
(unconstitutionality of political parties), in provisions relating to the protection of the constitution (‘Verfassungsschutz’) and in criminal provisions concerning treason (‘Verrat’) and similar offences (§§ 86(ii) and 93(ii) StGB).30
H FOREIGN RELATIONS31
Only the ‘Bund’ enjoys unrestricted sovereign authority in foreign relations: Article 32(i) GG.
Treaties with foreign states (‘Verträge mit auswärtigen Staaten’) are concluded in the name of the ‘Bund’ by the Federal President: Article 59(i) GG.
The usual stages are as follows:32
– agreement on and initialling of the draft text(‘Paraphierung’) by (federal) government representatives(‘Unterhändler’) following negotiations(‘Verhandlungen’);
– signature (‘Unterzeichnung’), normally by a (federal) government minister;
– where the proposed treaty seeks to regulate the political relations of the‘Bund’ or relates to matters of federal legislation, approval(‘Zustimmung’) or participation (‘Mitwirkung’) as necessary by the body/bodies having relevant (federal) legislative competence (ie, the ‘Bundestag’ and ‘Bundesrat’) in the form of a federal statute (‘Bundesgesetz’): Article 59(ii) GG.
This is the so-called‘Vertragsgesetz’ (treaty law) or‘Zustimmungsgesetz’ (approval law). The ‘Zustimmungsgesetz’ is also referred to as the ‘Transformationsgesetz’
because it transforms the provisions of the treaty (ie, public international law (‘Völkerrecht’)) into national law.33
After transformation, treaties have the rank of ‘(einfache) Gesetze’ ((simple) statutes) below the Basic Law. Thus, they remain subject to the rule ‘lex posterior derogat legi priori’ (a later law supercedes an earlier one) and can, in so far as national law is concerned, be repealed.34
However, by Article 25 GG, the general rules of public international law—which term includes customary public international law(‘Völkergewohnheitsrecht’)—take precedence over (simple) (federal or state) laws and confer rights and obligations directly on the inhabitants of the (German) federal territory:‘Sie gehen den Gesetzen vor und erzeugen Rechte und Pflichten unmittelbar für die Bewohner des Bundesgebietes’;35 – ratification (‘Ratifikation’) by the Federal President.
The‘Länder’ are largely free to conclude treaties(‘Staatsverträge’) amongst themselves (see, eg, Article 29(vii) GG). However, a treaty between a ‘Land’ and a foreign state must fall within the legislative competence of the‘Land’ and requires the approval of the Federal Government: Article 32(iii) GG.
CHAPTER III