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LcH as defined in the World Bank report (1975) are dwelling units developed within minimum but adequate standard and specifications and affordable to the poor. This definition has since evolved with the UN- Habitat (2011a) report describing the houses as mass houses of adequate standard affordable to the low-income groups. However, the classification of a low-income group may differ in varying contexts considering differences in national economies (Oladapo, 2001; Ogbu & Adindu, 2012). The variance in economies indicates that the definition of LcH will be country specific.

In developed countries like United Kingdom, the term affordable housing connotes housing, developed at specified standard and quality and supplied at prices affordable to eligible groups whose needs are not met by the market (Golland & Blake, 2004; Harris & Matthews, 2009; United Kingdom Department for Communities and Local Government, 2013). These houses are provided mainly through the housing associations in joint venture with government. This practice is similar in the United States of America it is housing developed or provided at an affordable cost for households in the middle or lower end of the income scale. The occupant(s) are expected to pay not more than 30 percent of their income for gross housing costs including utilities (Hecht, 2006; United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), 2014). In Australia, LcH is affordable housing reasonably adequate in standard and location for low or middle-income earners and available at cost, which can be sustainable (Disney, 2007). Apparently, from the developed countries perspective, LcH are dwelling units developed to meet the housing need of people within low and lower-middle income group.

29 From a developing country perspective, Mostafa, et al., (2006) and Jingchun (2011) in a study in China defined LcH as legally restricted for the use of persons or households who meet specific income requirements, particularly the low-income group. Jingchun (2011) espoused that LcH provision is mainly through the public sector mode. He argues that LcH differs from commercial housing based on the following characteristics; the nature of the provider, the access of funding for the development, factors that determine value, specification and standards as well as the procedure for the sales. The difference in characteristics is summarised in Table 2.1.

Table 2. 1: Differences between Low-Cost Housing and private Housing

Source: Adapted from Jingchun (2011)

In Malaysia studies by Mulok and Kogid (2008) and Hamzah (2012) describes LcH as housing developed and provided to the low and low- medium income group. These houses are of minimum standard and quality with a minimum floor space 60- 63m2 not exceeding three bedrooms and provided at affordable cost to meet compelling housing need. These houses are either public or private sector provided.

Perspectives from developing countries in the African region are quite similar. Tonkin (2008 cited in Le Roux, 2011), defined LcH in South Africa, as housing units whose total housing costs are deemed affordable to a group of people within a specified income range, and includes social housing and low-income housing. While Onatu (2010) referred to such housing as affordable housing for low to moderate income earners. Studies by Arku, (2009) on housing in Ghana defines LcH as housing priced below the general market price and affordable to the low-income earners.

In Nigeria, the National Housing Policy (NHP) document FMLHUD (2012) refers to LcH as housing developed for sale at affordable prices to low and middle-income groups in the

Variables Private housing Low-cost Housing

Developer Real Estate Developer Government

Project Fund Private Fund Housing Provident Fund

Construction style High taste living level Basic living level

30 country. These houses are initiated funded, and constructed and managed by government through the housing agencies directly or outsourced but under government supervision. However, in recent times, the joint venture led provision is becoming one of the strategies to promote LcH provision in the country. The definitions of LcH used as used in developing country perspective apparently connote same meaning as affordable housing a commonly adopted term in the developed countries.

In a different context, LcH is a term to describe a concept that deals with cost effectiveness (budgeting and techniques) appropriate technology (Kumar, 1999; Civil Engineering Portal, 2013; Bajunid & Ghazali, 2012). By appropriate technology, it implies the use of locally available materials with improved skills and techniques without sacrificing the strength, performance, and life of the structure. However, this definition of LcH is not appropriate for use in the context of this study.

Drawing from the above reviews, the usage of the term LcH emerges from the perspectives as:

 An intervention strategy to meet housing needs of a particular population group.  An appropriate technology advancement strategy.

This research is associated with the first perspective. Given the geographical area of this study (Nigeria) and drawing from NHP 2012, (cited in FMLHUD, 2012) LcH, as used in this study, can be defined appropriately. LcH is a government-led housing, comprised of multiple residential units located in same or several geographical areas, designed and constructed to reflect the incomes of projected beneficiaries, affording them the opportunity to upgrade as their income increases. This definition excludes any housing provided to the low- and Lower-Medium income group directly from the private sector for either profit, non- profit purposes or rental purposes. The projected beneficiaries are the low and lower-middle- income groups. LcH units could be bungalows as shown in Figure 2.2, low rise or even high- rise building developments.

31 Figure 2. 2: Model of Low-cost Housing in Nigeria

Source: Udo (2016)