Fuerzas Competitivas de Porter

This section (2.2) so far has discussed how children differ from adults in terms of cognitive development and FLL processes. It has also explored the importance of affective factors in TEYL classrooms. The aim of the review is to tease out factors that are important to consider in implementing assessment in TEYL contexts. Working on McKay’s (2006) proposition that assessment practices in TEYL classrooms should account for how children learn and are taught a FL, this section now examines the findings of the review so far to identify features that the language assessment of YLs should incorporate.

The review in Section 2.2.1 demonstrated that young children initially learn more slowly than older beginners. This is attributed to the implicit nature of FLL in childhood, which requires more time and to the developments in literacy in older learners. The nature of FLL in childhood is further informed by the literature on how children process language. Importantly, the review has suggested that learning in childhood relies on memory and

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that attention, noticing and analytical skills develop as learners mature. Furthermore, metacognitive skills, which are vital for conducting self- or peer- assessment, may not be possessed by YLLs but could be taught. These considerations have important implications for assessment in TEYL classrooms. Firstly, it seems necessary that assessment is not delayed in time but happens alongside the teaching and learning, thus being contextualised through on-going classroom practice. Secondly, it seems that the development of metacognitive awareness and strategies that help children notice the gap between their performance and what is expected from them should be incorporated gradually into teaching and assessment in order to enable learners to understand feedback and to self- and peer- assess. Thirdly, assessment practices should also take into account children’s short sustained attention span and provide tangible evidence of achievement that they can understand. Fourthly, children’s working memory relies to a large extent on the exemplar-based system, resulting in lexical communication being more available to young children. Hence, teaching and assessing the form of language explicitly may not be appropriate in TEYL contexts. Finally, the level of literacy in L1 should also be considered as it may have a direct impact on the choice of assessment tools that can be used in TEYL contexts and on the rate of progress.

The review in Section 2.2.2 suggested that teaching and assessment should enable interactions with a more capable peer in order to provide information about the current level of skill with relation to the task at hand, what can be done with support and what is beyond the learners’ ZPD: thus providing formative information about the next steps in the teaching and learning. However, only a limited number of studies in TEYL contexts have explored interactions that occur during assessment and how these can impact on FLL. Given the important role that interactions were shown to play in FLL in adult classrooms, it could be argued that, by facilitating conditions for collaborative dialogues, assessment practices can facilitate learning. Additionally, the review indicated that when learners are familiar with the task type they are able to devote more attention to completing it and collaborating with their interlocutors. These findings seem to have two implications for assessment in TEYL contexts. Firstly, they indicated that assessment aiming to move learning forward should be socially situated. Secondly, by implementing a task that is familiar for the learners, teachers can facilitate the collection of reliable assessment information. Additionally, the review concerning interaction offers important methodological considerations. Firstly, Storch’s (2002) model was identified as a useful

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tool for analysing the holistic patterns of dyadic interactions in a TEYL context. Secondly, the review indicated that the modes in which interactions occur need careful attention because some modes were shown to offer opportunities for the effective use of feedback by students (Oliver & Mackey, 2003).

The review in Section 2.2.3 explored the importance of affective factors in TEYL contexts. Anxiety, motivation, attitude and self-concept were shown to interact. More importantly, however, the review indicated that achievement and the perception of self- achievement might be important in sustaining learners’ motivation to learn and a positive attitude. These, in turn, are closely linked to developing a positive self-concept. Crucially, positive affect was shown to be correlated with performance in productive skills. This has clear implications for the current study. Most significantly, by providing feedback any assessment method seems likely to contribute to learners’ building up a perception of their own achievement. Hence, it is important that such feedback provides learners with positive reinforcement as well as with constructive criticism. Additionally, where areas for development are identified through feedback, these need to be communicated in a measurable and achievable way that can be understood by children and that enables YLLs to enhance their achievement: thus contributing to building a positive self-concept and motivation.

Having explored the issues connected with language learning in childhood, the review continues by shifting attention to reviewing the assessment of YLLs.

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